Class 12

MP Board Class 12th Chemistry Solutions  Chapter 15 Polymers

Polymers NCERT Intext Exercises

Question 1.
What are polymers?
Answer:
Polymers are high molecular mass substances consisting of large numbers of repeating structural units. Some examples of polymers are polythene, bakelite, rubber, nylon 6,6, etc.

Question 2.
How are polymers classified on the basis of structure ?
Answer:
On the basis of structure, polymers are classified as:

• Linear polymers: e.g. polyethene, nylons, polyvinylchloride etc.
• Branched chain polymers: e.g. low density polythene, glycogen.
• Cross-linked polymers: e.g. bakelite, melamine, etc.

Question 3.
Write the names of monomers of the following polymers:

Answer:

• Hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid
• Caprolactum
• Tetrafluoroethene.

Question 4.
Classify the following as addition and condensation polymers: Terylene, Bakelite, Polyvinyl chloride, Polythene.
Answer:

• Addition polymers: Polyvinyl chloride, Polythene
• Condensation polymers: Terylene, Bakelite

Question 5.
Explain the difference between Buna-N and Buna-S.
Answer:
Buna-N is a co-polymer of 1,3-butadiene and acrylonitrile Buna-S is a co-polymer of 1,3-butadiene and styrene.

Question 6.
Arrange the following polymers in increasing order of their inter molecular forces:

1. Nylon 6,6, Buna-S, Polythene.
2. Nylon 6, Neoprene, Polyvinyl chloride.

Answer:
In the order of increasing intermolecular forces.

• Buna – S, Polythene, Nylon – 66
• Neoprene, Polyvinyl chloride, Nylon – 6

Polymers NCERT Text Book Exercises

Question 1.
Explain the terms polymer and monomer.
Answer:
Polymers are high molecular mass substances (10³-10⁷u) formed by the combi-nation of a large number of simple molecules. They are also called macromolecules. For example, polyethene, bakelite, PVC, teflon etc.

Monomer:
Monomer is a simple molecule capable of undergoing polymerization to form polymers. For example, polyethylene is a polymer and its simple molecule ethene is a monomer.

Question 2.
What are natural and synthetic polymers? Give two examples of each type.
Answer:
Natural polymers are polymers that are found in nature. They are formed by plants and animals. Examples include protein, cellulose, starch, etc.

Synthetic polymers are polymers made by human beings Examples include plastic (polythene), synthetic fibers (nylon 6, 6), synthetic rubbers (Buna-S).

Question 3.
Distinguish between the terms homopolymer and copolymer and give an example of each.
Answer:
Homopolymers are the polymers which are made by the addition polymerization of a single type of monomeric species.

Co-polymers are the polymers which are made by addition polymerization from two different monomers.

Question 4.
How do you explain the functionality of a monomer?
Answer:
Functionality means the number of binding sites in a molecule. For example, the functionality of ethene, propene, styrene, acrylonitrile is one while that of 1,3 – butadiene, adipic acid, terephthalic acid, hexamethylene diamine is two.

Question 5.
Define the term polymerization.
Answer:
Polymerisation is the process of forming high molecular mass (10³-10⁷u) macromolecules, which consist of repeating structural units derived from monomers. In a polymer, various monomer units are joined by strong covalent bonds.

Question 6.
Is (NH – CHR – CO)_n a homopolymer or copolymer?
Answer:
It is a homopolymer because the repeating structural unit has only one type of monomer unit, i.e., NH₂ – CHR – COOH.

Question 7.
In which classes, the polymers are classified on the basis of molecular forces?
Answer:
On the basis of the magnitude of intermolecular forces present in polymers, they are classified into the following groups:

• Elastomers
• Fibers
• Thermoplastic polymers
• Thermosetting polymers

Question 8.
How can you differentiate between addition and condensation polymerization?
Answer:
Addition polymerization:
The molecules of the same or different monomers add together to form a macromolecule. Without the elimination of anything, the additional polymers are formed by monomers which are unsaturated compounds. For example, the formation of polyethylene from ethene.

Condensation polymerization:
Two or more bi-functional molecules undergo a series of condensation reactions with the elimination of some simple molecules like H₂O, R – OH, NH₃, HCl or CO_2, etc., to form a macromolecule (Polymer). For example, Nylon-6,6 is a condensation polymer of hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid formed by the elimination of water molecules.

Question 9.
Explain the term co-polymerization and give two examples.
Answer:
When two or more different monomers unite together to polymerize, the result- product is called a copolymer and the process is termed copolymerization. Thus, a copolymer contains a large number of units of each monomer used in the same polymeric chain. For example, Buna-S and Buna-N whereas Buna-S is a copolymer of 1,3-butadiene and styrene while Buna-N is a copolymer of 1,3-butadiene and acrylonitrile.

Question 10.
Write the free radical mechanism for the polymerization of ethene.
Answer:
In the presence of Benzoyl peroxide, the polymerization of ethane can be under¬stand by the free radical mechanism.
Chain initiation step:

Chain propagation step:
C₆H₅ + CH₂ = CH₂ → C₆H₅ – CH₂ – CH₂

Chain termination step:
C₆H₅ – CH₂– CH₂ + CH₂ = CH₂ → C₆H₅ – CH₂ – CH₂ – CH₂ – CH₂ → C₆H₅(- CH₂ – CH₂-)_n CH₂ – CH₂ – CH₂ – CH₂(- CH₂ – CH₂ – )KC₆H₅ Polythene

Question 11.
Define thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers with two examples of each.
Answer:
Thermoplastics polymers are linear (slightly branched) long-chain polymers, which can be repeatedly softened and hardened on heating. Hence, they can be modified again and again. Examples include polyethylene, polystyrene.

Thermosetting polymers are cross-linked or heavily branded polymers that get hardened during molding process. These plastics cannot be softened again on heating. Examples of thermosetting plastics include bakelite, urea-formaldehyde resins.

Question 12.
Write the monomers used for getting the following polymers:

1. Polyvinyl chloride
2. Teflon
3. Bakelite.

Answer:

1. Vinyl chloride (CH₂ = CH – Cl)
2. Tetrafluoroethylene (CF₂ = CF₂)
3. Phenol (C₆H₅OH) and Formaldehyde (HCHO).

Question 13.
Write the name and structure of one of the common initiators used in free radical addition polymerization.
Answer:
Benzoyl peroxide:

Question 14.
How does the presence of double bonds in rubber molecules influence their structure and reactivity?
Answer:
From the structural point of view, the natural rubber is a linear cis- 1,4-polyisoprene. In this polymer, the double bonds are located between C₂ and C₃ of isoprene units. This cis-configuration about double bonds does not allow the chains to come closer for effective interactions and hence intermolecular forces are quite-weak. Therefore, natural rubber has a coiled structure and shows elasticity.

Question 15.
Discuss the main purpose of the vulcanization of rubber.
Answer:
Natural rubber though useful has some problems associated with its use. These limitations are discussed below;

• Natural rubber is quite soft and sticky at room temperature. At elevated temperatures (>335K), it becomes even softer. At low temperature (<283K) it becomes brittle. Thus to maintain its elasticity, natural rubber is generally used in the temperature range of 283K-335K.
• It has the capacity to absorb large amounts of water.
• It has low tensile strength and low resistance to abrasion.
• It is soluble in non-polar solvents
• It is easily attacked by oxidizing agents
• Vulcanization of natural rubber is done to improve all these properties. In this process, a mixture of raw rubber with sulphur and appropriate additive is heated at a temperature range between 373K and 415K.

Question 16.
What are the monomeric repeating units of Nylon-6 and Nylon-6,6?
Answer:
Nylon-6: Caprolactum Nylon-6,6: hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid.

Question 17.
Write the names and structures of the monomers of the following polymers:
(i) Buna-S
(ii) Buna-N
(iii) Dacron
(iv) Neoprene.
Answer:
Names and structures of the monomers:

Question 18.
Identify the monomer in the following polymeric structures:

Answer:

Question 19.
How is dacron obtained from ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid?
Answer:
Dacron is obtained by the polymerization of ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid.

Question 20.
What is a biodegradable polymer? Give an example of a biodegradable aliphatic polyester.
Answer:
The polymers which are degraded by micro-organism within a suitable period of time so that the polymers and their degraded products do not cause any serious effects on the environment are called biodegradable polymers. An example of biodegradable aliphatic polyester is PHBV. (Poly-β-hydroxybutyrate – CO – β – hydroxy valerate)

Polymers Other Important Exercises

Polymers Objective Type Questions

Choose the correct answer:

Question 1.
Which of the following is false:
(a) Artificial silk is derived from cellulose
(b) Nylon-6,6 is an example of an elastomer
(c) The repeat unit in natural rubber is isoprene
(d) Both starch and cellulose are polymers of glucose.
Answer:
(b) Nylon-6,6 is an example of an elastomer

Question 2.
Formation of polyethylene from calcium carbide takes place as follows:
CaC₂ + 2H₂O → Ca(OH)₂ + C₂H₂
C₂H₂ + H₂ → C₂H_4
nC₂ H₄ → (- CH₂ – CH₂ -)_n
The amount of polyethylene obtained from 64-0 kg CaC₂ is:
(a) 7 kg
(b) 14 kg
(c) 21 kg
(d) 28 kg.
Answer:
(d)28 kg.

Question 3.
Which of the following statements about low density polythene is false:
(a) Its synthesis requires high pressure
(b) It is a poor conductor of electricity
(c) Its synthesis requires dioxygen or a peroxide initiator as a catalyst
(d) It is used in the manufacture of buckets, dustbin etc.
Answer:
(d) It is used in the manufacture of buckets, dustbin etc.

Question 4.
Nylon is an example of:
(a) Polyamide
(b) Polythene
(c) Polyester
(d) Polysaccharide.
Answer:
(a) Polyamide

Question 5.
Natural rubber has:
(a) Alternate cis- and tnms-configuration
(b) Random cis- and /ram-configuration
(c) All cis-configuration
(d) All trans-configuration.
Answer:
(c) All cis-configuration

Question 6.
Which of the following is not a condensation polymer :
(a) Melamine
(b) Glyptal
(c) Dacron
(d) Neoprene.
Answer:
(d) Neoprene.

Question 7.
Which is a monomer of neoprene in the following :

Answer:

Question 8.
Which of the following is a biodegradable polymer:
(a) Polythene
(b) Bakelite
(c) PHBV
(d) P.V.C.
Answer:
(c) PHBV

Question 9.
Which of the following has ester linkage:
(a) Nylon
(b) Bakelite
(c) Terylene
(d) P.V.C.
(e) Rubber.
Answer:
(c) Terylene

Question 10.
Teflon is a polymer of:
(a) Tetrafluoroethylene
(b) Tetraiodoethylene
(c) Tetrabromoethylene
(d) Tetrachloroethylene.
Answer:
(a) Tetrafluoroethylene

Question 11.
Nylon threads are made up of:
(a) Polyamide polymer
(b) Polyethylene polymer
(c) Polyvinyl polymer
(d) Polyester polymer.
Answer:
(a) Polyamide polymer

Question 12.
Bakelite is a polymer of:
(a) HCHO and acetic acid
(b) HCHO and phenol
(c) C₂H₅OH and phenol
(d) CH₃COOH and benzene,
Answer:
(b) HCHO and phenol

Question 13.
Which of the following is a biodegradable polymer:
(a) Cellulose
(b) Polyethene
(c) Polyvinylchloride
(d) Nylon-6.
Answer:
(a) Cellulose

Question 14.
Nylon-6,6 is not a:
(a) Condensation polymer
(b) Copolymer
(c) Polyamide
(d) Homopolymer.
Answer:
(d) Homopolymer.

Question 15.
Which of the following is a chain-growth polymer:
(a) Starch
(b) Nucleic acid
(c) Poly styrene
(d) Protein
Answer:
(c) Poly styrene

Question 2.
Fill in the blanks:

1. …………… Is used for the preparation of chloroprene.
2. Charge on polymers is ……………
3. Molecular mass of polymers is ……………
4. Glucose is a monomer of ……………
5. Cellulose is a …………… polymer.
6. Polymer of ethylene glycol and phthalic acid is ……………
7. Rubber is a …………… polymer.
8. Vulcanisation of rubber is an example of ……………
9. Bakelite is a …………… polymer.
10. Polymer used for making pipes is ……………
11. Nylon 6 is also called ……………
12. Teflon is a polymer of ……………

Answer:

1. Synthetic rubber
2. Nil (zero)
3. High
4. Cellulose and starch
5. Natural
6. Glyptal
7. Natural
8. Elastomer
9. Heat resistant
10. PVC
11. Perlon-L
12. Tetra fluoro ethylene.

Question 3.
Match the following:

Answer:

1. (d) Polyethylene glycol phthalate
2. (a) Adipic acid and hexa methylene diamine
3. (c) Caprolactum
4. (f) Lucite
5. (b) Melamine
6. (g) Polytetrafluoroethene
7. (e) Dacron
8. (h) Bakelite.

Question 4.
Answer in one word / sentence:

1. Give two examples of natural polymer.
2. Give two examples of addition polymer.
3. Give two examples of condensation polymer.
4. Write chemical name of Buna rubber.
5. What is Buna-S ?
6. Give an example of synthetic rubber.
7. Monomer of polythylene is.
8. Give the name of polymer used for formation of tyre thread.
9. Name the polymerisation which takes place by addition of two or more than two different monomers.
10. Name the polymer which is formed by condensation of ethylene glycol and dimethyl terephthalic acid.

Answer:

1. Natural polymer-Rubber, starch
2. Polythene, Polypropylene
3. Nylon, Bakelite
4. Styrene Butadiene rubber
5. It is a co-polymer of Butadiene and styrene. Bu is for Butadiene Na for sodium and S-for styrene
6. Styrene Butadiene rubber (S.B.R.)
7. Ethylene
8. Terylene
9. Co-polymerisation
10. Terylene.

Polymers Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Can a copolymer be formed both in addition and condensation polymeri-zation ?
Answer:
Yes, it can be formed in both the cases, e.g., buna-S is a copolymer of styrene, 1,3 – butadiene and sodium and is an addition polymer. Nylon-6,6 is a condensation co-polymer in which monomers are different, i.e., adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine.

Question 2.
What is the difference between two notations: nylon-6 and nylon-6,6 ?
Answer:
Nylon-6 is obtained from caprolactum which is obtained from cyclohexane. It has only one compound having 6 carbon atom.
Nylon-6,6 refers to polymer obtained from 6 carbon atom of dicarboxylic acid (adipic acid) and 6 carbon atoms of diamine.

Question 3.
Arrange the following polymers in the increasing order of their intermo – lecular forces. Also classify them as addition and condensation polymer. Nylon-6,6, Buna-S, Polythene.
Answer:

• Polythene < buna-S < nylon-6,6.
• Nylon – 6,6 – condensation polymer
• buna – S, polythene – addition polymer.

Question 4.
In a classroom discussion, Ramu said that bakelite on heating changes to a hard, infusible mass.

1. Is his statement correct?
2. What type of plastic is this?
3. What are the monomers used for the production of bakelite?
4. Can you convert switch made from bakelite into Formica tabletop? Comment.
5. How is the polymer bakelite different from the polymer PVC?

Answer:

1. Yes.
2. Thermosetting plastic.
3. Phenol and HCHO.
4. Bakelite is a thermosetting plastic having a three-dimensional network structure. Thermosetting plastic once shaped changes to a hard infusible mass that can’t be reshaped or restructured.
5. Bakelite is a thermosetting plastic and PVC is a thermoplastic.

Question 5.
Are polyesters and polyacrylates same ? Justify your answer.
Answer:
Polyesters and polyacrylates are different types of polymer and differ in following ways:

• Polyacrylates are homopolymer, while the polyesters are co-polymer in nature.
• The mode of synthesis of polyacrylates is addition polymerization, while those of polyester is condensation polymerization.
• Polymerization occurs across C = C bond in polyacrylates whereas, in polyesters it is through ester linkage.

Question 6.
Why should one always use the purest form of monomer in free radical polymerization reaction?
Answer:
In free radical polymerization, the impurities can act as chain transfer agent and may combine with the free radical to slow down the reaction or even stop the reaction.

Question 7.
Polymers are found use in everyday life. What is the purpose of,

1. Teflon coating on some frying pans.
2. Vinyl coating on some wallpapers.
3. PVC covering of electrical connecting wires.

Answer:

1. Teflon is very inert and is resistant to heat and chemicals. So Teflon coating is used in frying pans.
2. PVC is a pliable polymer, it is a thermoplastic and is used in some wallpapers.
3. PVC is a chemically inert and bad conductor of heat and electricity. So PVC covering is used in electrical connecting wires.

Question 8.
What are polythene ? Write its two uses.
Answer:
It is prepared by heating ethylene at about 473 K under high pressure (1500-2000 atm) in presence of a very small amount of oxygen.

Uses:

• It is used for packaging.
• It is used as an insulator for electrical wires and cables.
• In the manufacture of pipes, bottles, etc.

Question 9.
What is neoprene rubber? Write its uses.
Answer:
Neoprene is a thermoplastic polymer of 2 – chloro – 1, 3 – butadiene (Chloroprene).
Method of preparation: By polymerisation of chloroprene in presence of potassium persulphate.

Uses:

• For making petrol delivery pipes.
• For making conveyer belts used in coal mines.

Question 10.
What is PVC ? Write its uses.
Answer:
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a higher polymer of vinyl chloride.

Preparation:
It is prepared by heating vinyl chloride in an inert solvent in the presence of benzoyl peroxide

Uses:
It is used for making plastic pipes, gramophone records, toys, buckets, electric insulators, raincoat, hand bag and water proof substances

Question 11.
What is teflon ? Write its uses.
Answer:
It is a polymer obtained by the polymerization of tetrafluoroethylene in presence of benzoyl peroxide.

Uses: For making gasket, packing of pump, valve seal, bearing, etc.

Question 12.
What is cellulose ? Write its uses.
Answer:
Cellulose is a natural polysaccharide, molecular formula of cellulose is (C₆H₁₀O₅)n. It is the main constituent of cell wall of plants and is also found in the tissues of some animals. Wood contain 60% and cotton 90% of cellulose. It is an organic compound found in abundance in nature.
Uses:
It is used to manufacture semi synthetic polymer, artificial thread and plastic.

Question 13.
What is Zieglar – Natta catalyst ? Write its uses.
Answer:
Zieglar – Natta catalyst:
Mixture of titanium tetrachloride and aluminium compound in an inert solvent (hexane) is called Zieglar – Natta catalyst.

Uses:
(i) At low pressure and temperature polythene is formed from ethylene.

It is used for making toys, radio, T.V., cabinet.

(ii) At low temperature and pressure, propylene in presence of Zieglar – Natta catalyst form polypropylene

It is used for making bottles, pipes, gramophone records.

Question 14.
Differentiate between Nylon – 6 and Nylon-6,6.
Answer:
Difference between Nylon-6 and Nylon-6,6 polymer:

Nylon-6:

• This is prepared by the condensation of caprolactam molecules.
• Caprolactam contains a chain of 6 atoms hence this polymer is nylon-6.
• It is used in sheets, bristles for brushes. Crinkled nylon is also used in elastic hosiery.

Nylon-6,6:

• This is obtained by the condensation of hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid monomers.
• Adipic acid and hexamethylenedi amine both the compounds contain a chain of 6 carbons hence the polymer is called nylon-6, 6.
• It is used in manufacture of tyres, cords, fabrics and ropes.

Question 15.
Describe the preparation, properties and uses of teflon.
Answer:
Teflon or Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE):
This is obtained by the polymer – ization of tetrafluoroethylene. Tetrafluoroethylene is heated under pressure in the presence of ammonium peroxosuiphate.

Properties:

• It is hard, heat resistant and chemically inert. It melts at 330 °C. It is unaffected by concentrated acids (cone. HNO₃, cone. H₂SO₄, cone. HCl), aqua regia and concentrated sodium hydroxide solution even at high temperature.
• It is bad conductor of electricity.

Uses:

• It is used in making cans used to store concentrated acid, aqua regia etc.
• It is used as a non sticky coating on utensils.

Question 16.
How is bakelite prepared ? Write its uses also.
Answer:
Bakelite is cross – linked polymer. It is prepared by condensation of phenol and formaldehyde in presence of alkali.

Uses:
Soft bakelite formed due to less polymerization are used as binder in wooden items, in varnishes and liquors. Hard bakelite are formed by high degree of polymerization and are used for manufacture of electrical goods, comb, fountain pens, gramophone records, table tops like pharmica, etc.

Question 17.
Write the method of preparation, properties and uses of Nylon-6,6.
Answer:
Preparation:
Nylon is a polymer containing amideNylon-6,6 is prepared by the polymerization of hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid. The meaning of 6,6 is that in the polymer chain both acid and diamine molecules contain 6-6 carbon atoms.

Properties:

• Nylon threads possess high tensile strength.
• They are hard.
• They are elastic in nature.
• Structure of nylon is like protein.

Uses:

• It is used for coating of wire, cables and other electrical goods because PVC is a good insulator of electricity.
• It is used for making plastic pipes, gramophone records, hand bags, raincoats, inflatable toys, etc.
• For making vinyl flooring, shower, curtains, false ceiling, wall covering, doors and windows.
• For making shoes heals and foot wear.
• For making sheets of tank-linkings, raincoats, lacquers, rods, tubes, packings, table cloths, light fittings, safety helmets, refrigeration components, trays, cycles, motorcycle mudguards, flexible articles such as toys, insulators, leather clothes, dolls, dipped goods such as protective gloves.
•  It is used in manufacture of types cords, fabrics and ropes.

Polymers Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What are natural polymer ? Explain some polymers with example.
Answer:
Natural polymers:
Those polymers which are found in nature (generally in plants and animals) are called natural polymers. The followings are their example:

(a) Polysaccharides:
Starch and cellulose are important example of polysaccharides. They are the polymers of glucose. Cellulose is the main structural material of plants. Plants store their food in the form of starch.

(b) Proteins:
Proteins are polymers of a-amino acids. They are the main constituents of animal cells. Natural silk, wool and leather are some examples.

(c) Nucleic acids:
The polymers of nucleic acids are called nucleotides. Their impor-tant examples are RNA and DNA.

(d) Natural rubber:
Natural rubber is prepared from latex which is obtained from rubber tree. It is a polymer of 2-methyl-1, 3-butadiene (isoprene). It may be noted that polymers like polysaccharides, nucleic acids, proteins, etc. which control various life processes in plants and animals are also called biopolymers.

Question 2.
On the basis of structure polymers are of how many types ? Explain.
Answer:
Classification based on structure:
This classification is based upon how the monomeric units are linked together. The polymers of this class are of three types:

(i) Linear polymers:
In this type of polymers, the monomer units are linked together to form long linear chains. These linear chains are placed one above the other and are closely packed in space. If A is the monomeric unit then linear chain is formed as given in Fig.

Characteristics:
Due to close packed structure, they have high densities, high tensile strength and high melting point, e.g., polythene, nylon, polystyrene, etc.

(ii) Branched chain polymers:
In this type of polymers, the monomer units combine to form a long chain which is called the main chain. Many side chains are connected to the main chain. The side chains of different lengths constitute branches, e.g., A is the monomeric unit which forms a straight linear chain (main chain). Side chain of A is connected to main chain as shown in Fig. They are not closely packed.

Characteristics:
Due to irregular packed structure, branched chain polymers have low densities, low tensile strength and low melting point, e.g., low density polythene, amylopectin, glycogen, etc.

(iii) Cross-linked polymers:
In these polymers, the monomer units combine to form a three-dimensional network.

Characteristics:
They are hard, rigid and brittle due to cross-linked structure, e.g., bakelite, melamine, etc.

MP Board Class 12th Chemistry Solutions

MP Board Class 12th Chemistry Solutions Chapter 16 Chemistry in Everyday Life

Chemistry in Everyday Life NCERT Intext Exercises

Question 1.
Sleeping pills are recommended by doctors to the patients suffering from sleeplessness but it is not advisable to take their doses without consultation with the doctor. Why?
Answer:
Most of the drugs taken in doses higher than recommended, may cause harmful effect and act as a poison. Also, side effects arise when a drug binds to more than one receptor site. Thus, it is not advisable to take sleeping pills without consultation with the doctor.

Question 2.
With reference to which classification has the statement, “ranitidine is an antacid” been given?
Answer:
This statement refers to the classification of drugs according to pharmacological effects of the drugs because any drug which is used to neutralise the excess acid present in the stomach will be called an antacid and ranitidine prevents the interaction of histamine with the receptors present in the stomach wall. Histamine stimulates the secretion of pepsin and HCl in the stomach.

Question 3.
Why do we require artificial sweetening agents?
Answer:
Artificial sweetening agents:

• Control the calorie intake
• Act as a substitute for sugar for diabetics.

Question 4.
Write the chemical equation for preparing sodium soap from glyceryl oleate and glyceryl palmitate. Structural formulae of these compounds are given below:
(i) (C₁₅H₃₁COO)₃C₃H₅ – Glyceryl palmitate
(ii) (C₁₇H₃₂COO)₃C₃H₅ – Glyceryl oleate
Answer:

Question 5.
The following type of non-ionic detergents is present in liquid detergents, emulsifying agents, and wetting agents. Label the hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts in the molecule. Identify the functional group(s) present in the molecule.

Answer:

Chemistry in Everyday Life NCERT Text Book Exercises

Question 1.
Why do we need to classify drugs in different ways?
Answer:
The classification of drugs and the reason for classification are as follows:
1. On the basis of pharmacological effect: This classification provides doctor the whole range of drugs available for the treatment of a particular type of problem Hence, such a classification is very useful to doctors.

2. On the basis of drug action: This classification is based on the action of a drug on a particular biochemical process Thus, this classification is important.

3. On the basis of chemical structure: This classification provides the range of drugs sharing common structural features and often having similar pharmacological activity.

4. On the basis of molecular targets: This classification provides medicinal chemists the drugs having the same mechanism of action on targets Hence, is the most useful to medicinal chemists.

Question 2.
Explain the term, target molecules or drug targets as used in medicinal chemistry.
Answer:
Drugs are taken by a patient interact with macromolecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids, and these are called drug targets. These macromolecules or drug targets are known to perform several roles in the body. The drugs are designed to interact with specific targets so that these have the least chances of effecting the other targets. This minimizes the side effects and localises the action of the drug.

Question 3.
Name the macromolecules that are chosen as drug targets.
Answer:
The macromolecules chosen as drug targets are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.

Question 4.
Why should not medicines be taken without consulting doctors?
Answer:
The drugs or medicines have side effects also. These side effects arise because the drug may bind to more than one type of receptor. Further, their wrong choice and overdose can cause havoc and even may cause death. Therefore, it is a must that the medicines should not be given without consulting doctors.

Question 5.
Define the term chemotherapy.
Answer:
The use of chemicals for therapeutic effect is called chemotherapy For example the use of chemicals in the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases.

Question 6.
Which forces are involved in holding the drugs to the active site of enzymes ?
Answer:
The forces holding drugs to the active sites of enzymes are hydrogen bonding, ionic bonding, dipole-dipole interactions, or van der Waals forces.

Question 7.
While antacids and anti-allergic drugs interfere with the function of histamines, why do these not interfere with the function of each other?
Answer:
Specific drugs affect particular receptors Antacids and anti-allergic drugs work at different receptors This is the reason why antacids and anti-allergic drugs do not interfere with each other’s functions but interfere with the functions of histamines.

Question 8.
Low level of noradrenaline is the cause of depression. What type of drugs I are needed to cure this problem? Name two drugs.
Answer:
Nor-adrenaline induces a feeling of well-being and helps in changing the mood. If the level of noradrenaline is low, then the signal-sending activity of the hormone becomes low and the person suffers from depression. In such cases, the patient needs anti-depressant drugs which inhibit the enzymes which catalyses the degradation of nor adrenaline. The common drugs used as an anti-depressant are iproniazid and phenelzine.

Question 9.
What is meant by the term ‘broad-spectrum antibiotics’? Explain.
Answer:
Antibiotics that are effective against a wide range of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria are known as broad-spectrum antibiotics, chloramphenicol is a broad-spectrum antibiotic.

Question 10.
How do antiseptics differ from disinfectants? Give one example of each
Answer:
1. Antiseptics are applied to living tissues such as wounds, cuts etc. to kill or prevent the growth of microorganisms.
Example:
0-2% phenol, tincture iodine, dettol etc.

2. Disinfectants are applied to inanimate (or nonliving) objects such as floors, instruction Disinfectants are applied to inanimate (or nonliving) objects such as floors, instruments, drainage system etc.
Example:
1% solution of phenol, chlorine (0-2 to 0-4 ppm) SO₂ in low concentration.

Question 11.
Why are cimetidine and ranitidine better antacids than sodium hydrogen-carbonate or magnesium or aluminium hydroxide?
Answer:
Antacids such as sodium hydrogen carbonate, magnesium hydroxide, and aluminium hydroxide work by neutralising the excess hydrochloric acid present in the stomach However, the root cause for the release of excess acid remains untreated.

Cimetidine and ranitidine are better antacids as they control the root cause of acidity These drugs prevent the interaction of histamine with the receptors present in the stomach walls Consequently there is a decrease in the amount of acid release by the stomach This is why cimetidine and ranitidine are better antacids than sodium hydrogen carbonate, magnesium hydroxide, and aluminium hydroxide.

Question 12.
Name a substance which can be used as an antiseptic as well as a disinfectant.
Answer:
Phenol is a substance which can be used as an antiseptic (0 – 2% solution) as well as a disinfectant (1% solution).

Question 13.
What are the main constituents of Dettol?
Answer:
The main constituents of dettol are chloroxylenol and α -terpineol.

Question 14.
What is the tincture of iodine? What is its use?
Answer:
In Chemistry, a tincture is a solution that has alcohol as its solvent. Tincture iodine is a 2 – 3% solution of iodine in an alcohol-water mixture. It is applied on wounds to either kill or prevent the growth of microorganisms.

Question 15.
What are food preservatives ?
Answer:
Food preservatives are chemicals that prevent food from spoilage due to microbial growth Table salt, sugar, vegetable oil, sodium benzoate (C₆H₃ COONa), and salts of propanoic acid are some examples of food preservatives.

Question 16.
Why is use of aspartame limited to cold foods and soft drinks?
Answer:
Use of aspartame is limited to cold foods and soft drinks because it is unstable at cooking temperature.

Question 17.
What are artificial sweetening agents? Give two examples.
Answer:
Artificial sweetening agents that sweeten food, However, unlike natural sweeteners, they do not add calories to our body They do not harm the human body Some artificial sweeteners are aspartame, saccharin, sucralose, and alitame.

Question 18.
Name the sweetening agent used in the preparation of sweets for a diabetic patient.
Answer:
Any artificial sweetening agents such as saccharin, aspartame or alitame may be added.

Question 19.
What problem arises in using alitame as an artificial sweetener?
Answer:
Alitame is a high potency sweetener It is difficult to control the sweetness of food while using alitame as an artificial sweetener.

Question 20.
How are synthetic detergents better than soaps?
Answer:

• Soaps cannot be used in hard water but detergents can be used.
• Soaps cannot be used in acidic water but detergents can be used.

Question 21.
Explain the following terms with suitable examples
(a) Cationic detergents
(b) Anionic detergents and
(c) Non-ionic detergents.
Answer:
(a) Cationic detergents are those which have a cationic hydrophilic group. These are mostly acetates, chlorides or bromides of quaternary ammonium salts. For example cetyltrimethylammonium chloride.
[CH₃(CH₂)₁₅ N(CH₃)₃]⁺Çl^–

(b) Anionic detergents are those which have an anionic hydrophilic group. These are of two types:
(i) Sodium alkyl sulphate e.g., sodium lauryl sulphate CH₃(CH₂)₁₀CH₂OSO₃^–Na⁺
(ii) Sodium alkyl benzene sulphonate e.g., sodium 4-(l-dodecyl) benzene sulpho- nate (SDS)

(c) Non-ionic or neutral detergents are esters of high molecular mass alcohols as in fatty acids. For example, polyethylene glycol stearate.

(c) Non-ionic or neutral detergents are esters of high molecular mass alcohols as in fatty acids. For example, polyethylene glycol stearate.
CH₃(CH₂)₁₆COO(CH₂CH₂O)_nCH₂CH₂OH
Polyethylene glycol stearate.

Question 22.
What are bio-degradable and non-biodegradable detergents? Give one example of each.
Answer:
Detergents that can be degraded by bacteria are called biodegradable detergents Such detergents have straight hydrocarbon chains For example Sodium Lauryl sulphate.

Detergents that cannot be degraded have highly branched hydrocarbon chains For example Sodium – 4- (1, 3, 5,7 – tetramethyl octyl) benzene sulphonate.

Soap molecules form micelles around an oil droplet (dirt) in such a way that the hydrophobic parts of the stearate ions attach themselves to the oil droplet and the hydrophilic parts project outside the oil droplet Due to the polar nature of the hydrophilic parts, the stearate ions (along with the dirt) are pulled into the water, thereby removing the dirt from the cloth.

Question 23.
Why do soaps not work in hard water?
Answer:
Hard water contains calcium and magnesium salts. Therefore, in hard water, soaps get precipitated as insoluble calcium and magnesium soaps which being insoluble stick to the cloth as gummy mass and block the ability of soap to move oil or grease from the cloth.

Question 24.
Can you use soaps and synthetic detergents to check the hardness of water?
Answer:
Soaps get precipitated in hard water, but not in soft water, Therefore, soaps can be used for checking the hardness of water However, synthetic detergents do not get precipitated either cationic part of these detergents contains a long hydrocarbon chain and a positive charge on the N atom.

Question 25.
Explain the cleansing action of soaps.
Answer:
Cleaning action of soaps:
Cleaning action of soap and detergents are based on miceller activity. Soaps are sodium salt of higher fatty acids e.g., sodium stearate which ionises as:

The anionic head of stearate ion (- COO^–) is hydrophilic and hence has great affinity for water. The hydrocarbon part is hydrophobic and has great affinity for oil, grease etc.

When soap dissolves in water the anions (C₁₇H₃₅COO^–) form micelle encapsulating oil or grease inside. These micelles are removed by rinsing with water. Thus the main function of soap is to convert oily and greasy dirt to colloidal particles by forming an emulsion. Soaps, therefore, act as emulsifying agents. This mechanism of cleaning is also applicable to synthetic detergents like sodium lauryl sulphate CH₃(CH₂)₁₁ SO^–₄ Na⁺. Repulsion of similar charge -COO^– or -SO^–₄ covering each oil (grease) micelle prevents them to come together. Thus oil or grease remains in the suspension.

Question 26.
If the water contains dissolved calcium hydrogen carbonate, out of soaps and synthetic detergents which one will you use for cleaning clothes?
Answer:
Calcium bicarbonate makes water hard. Soap will give a precipitate with this hard water and therefore, cannot be used for cleaning clothes. On the other hand, synthetic detergents does not give precipitate in hard water because its calcium salt is also soluble in water. Therefore, synthetic detergents can be used for cleaning clothes in hard water.

Question 27.
Label the hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts in the following compounds:
(a) CH₃(CH₂)₁₀CH₂OSO₃^– Na⁺
(b) CH₃(CH₂)₁₅\(\overset { + }{ N } \)(CH₃)₃\(\overset { – }{ Br } \)
(c) CH₃(CH₂)₁₆COO(CH₂CH₂O)_nCH₂CH₂OH
Answer:

Chemistry in Everyday Life Other Important Exercises

Chemistry in Everyday Life Objective Type Questions

Choose the correct answer:

Question 1.
Which isomer of cyclohexane hexachloride is a strong insecticide:
(a) α
(b) β
(c) γ
(d) δ
Answer:
(c) γ

Question 2.
Denatured spirit is specially used:
(a) In medicine
(b) In fuel
(c) In varnish
(d) In propellant.
Answer:
(a) In medicine

Question 3.
Which of the following is not an example of analgesic:
(a) Phenacetin
(b) Paracetamol
(c) Chloramphenicol
(d) Morphine.
Answer:
(c) Chloramphenicol

Question 4.
Which of the following medicine was discovered by Alexander Fleming:
(a) Penicillin
(b) Streptomycin
(c) Chloromycetin
(d) Aspirin.
Answer:
(a) Penicillin

Quention 5.
Which medicine is used for the treatment of tuberculosis:
(a) Penicillin
(b) Streptomycin
(c) Chloromycetin
(d) Sulphadiazine.
Answer:
(b) Streptomycin

Question 6.
Which medicine is used for the treatement of T.B.:
(a) Pencillin
(b) Aspirin
(c) Chloramphenicol
(d) Streptomycin.
Answer:
(d) Streptomycin.

Question 7.
Saccharin is times sweeter than sugarcane:
(a) 10
(b) 600
(c) 4000
(d) 40.
Answer:
(b) 600

Question 8.
The chemical substance extracted from Rauvolfia serpentina is:
(a) Aspirin
(b) Quinone
(c) Bithionol
(d) Reserpine.
Answer:
(d) Reserpine.

Question 9.
Compound which is used both as an antipyretic as well as analgesic is:
(a) Phenacetin
(b) Sulpha drug
(c) Paracetamol
(d) Aspirin.
Answer:
(d) Aspirin.

Question 10.
Which of the following group expresses maximum number of detergent:
(a) Cationic
(b) Anionic
(c) Non-ionic
(d) Hydrophobic.
Answer:
(b) Anionic

Question 11.
Which of the following is a tranquillizer:
(a) Seconol
(b) Streptomycin
(c) Morphine
(d) Phenacetin.
Answer:
(a) Seconol

Question 12.
Which of the following is not an antibiotic:
(a) Terramycin
(b) Chloromycetin
(c) Morphine Salol is
(d) D-Penicillin.
Answer:
(c) Morphine Salol is

Question 13.
Salol is used as:
(a) Antipyretic
(b) Antipyretic
(c) (a) And (b) both
(d) None of these
Answer:
(c) (a) And (b) both

Question 14.
Chloroquine is an example of:
(a) Antipyretic
(b) Antimalarial
(c) Antibacterial
(d) Antituberculor.
Answer:
(b) Antimalarial

Question 15.
Which of the following is a broad spectrum antibiotic:
(a) Streptomycin
(b) Penicillin
(c) Ampicillin
(d) Chioramphenicol.
Answer:
(d) Chioramphenicol.

Question 16.
Which of the following is not an antibiotic:
(a) Terramycin
(b) Chioromycetin
(c) Morphine
(d) Penicillamine.
Answer:
(c) Morphine

Quesrtion 17.
Veronal is used as:
(a) Anaesthetic
(b) Sedative
(c) Antiseptic
(d) None of these.
Answer:
(b) Sedative

Question 18.
Which of the following ¡s a hypnotic:
(a) Lurninol
(b) Salol
(c) Catechol
(d) Phenol.
Answer:
(a) Lurninol

Question 19.
Pheromones are secreted by:
(a) Endocrine glands
(b) Stomach
(c) Exocrine glands
(d) Sex glands.
Answer:
(c) Exocrine glands

Question 2.
Fill in the blanks:

1. Oil of …………. is used as medicine.
2. Sodium benzoate and potassium metabisulphate are good ………….
3. Sodium dodecyl benzene sulphonate and sodium lauryl sarcosinate are important ………….
4. Iodine is a strong ………….
5. Example of a tranquilizer medicine is ………….
6. …………. is obtained from cinchona bark.
7. Chloroquine is a …………. medicine.
8. …………. is known as father of surgery.
9. Alexander Fleming discovered …………. antibiotic medicine.
10. Substance which reduces the acidity of stomach is called ………….

Answer:

1. Cinnamon
2. Preservative
3. Detergent
4. Antiseptic
5. Seconal
6. Quinine
7. Antimalarial
8. Sushrut
9. Penicillin
10. Antacid.

Question 3.
Match the following:

Answer:

1. (e) Antipyretic.
2. (c) Tranquillizer
3. (b) Antibiotic
4. (a) Anaesthetic
5. (d) Antiseptic

Question 4.
Answer in one word / sentence:

1. What are pain reliever medicine called ?
2. Write name of two analgesic.
3. Name a suitable chemical for excessive tension and mental disorders.
4. Streptomycin medicine is used for the treatment of which disease ?
5. Why are antifertility drugs used ?

Answer:

1. Analgesic
2. Aspirin and Morphine
3. Equanil
4. Malaria
5. For birth control or control of reproductive ability

Chemistry in Everyday Life Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What are germicides ?
Answer:
Germicides are substances which possess the power to destroy germs. Sulphur compounds, mercury com-pounds (mercuric iodide) and phenolic compounds are usedas germicides. Sulphur compounds in soap protect the skin from pimples, dandruff and skin infection. Phenolic compounds are mostly used as germicides. Cresyclic acid which is a mix-ture of m-cresol and p-cresol is mixed in soap as a germicide.

Question 2.
Write the structure of chloramphenicol and state its use.
Answer:
Chloramphenicol is an effective antibiotic. It is mainly used in typhoid, fever, diarrhoea, cough, meningitis and urinary diseases.

Question 3.
What do you understand by antipyretics ?
Answer:
These are used to lower down the body temperature in high fever. These drugs are used both as antipyretic and as analgesic, e.g., aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid), parace-tamol (4-acetamido phenol), phenacetin (4-ethoxy acetanilide), analgin, etc.

Question 4.
What are Antibiotics ? Write name of any two antibiotics.
Answer:
Antibiotics:
are chemical substances which are. produced by micro-organisms like; bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes and destroy some other micro-organisms are like, virus, ricketsia or obstruct their growth. Example : Penicillin, Streptomycin etc.

Question 5.
What is Immune system ? How does it develop ?
Answer:
For the destruction of bacteria or antigen in our body, lymphocytes are devel-oped which are known as Immune. These are a specific type of white blood cells. These prepare and release a special type of protein called globulin to destroy the poison. These proteins destroy the attacking virus, bacteria and poisonous substances. Lymphocyte bind the antigen and themselves divide fast by which immunization increase and effect of anti-gen is destroyed.

Question 6.
What are antiseptics ?
Answer:
Antiseptics:
An antiseptic kills the bacteria or prevents the multiplication of bacteria. These also prevent pus formation. Antiseptics do not harm living tissues. Tincture iodine, phenol (0-2%), dettol, chloroxylenol, etc. are applied on skin and bactrim, septran, etc. are taken orally as pills. Bad odour coming out of the wounds due to bacterial decomposition on the body or in the mouth are also reduced by the use of antiseptics.

For such purposes, antiseptics are usually incorporated in face-powder, breath purifiers, deodorants, etc. to reduce the inten-sity of bad odour. Neem soaps containing the extract of neem seeds are also used as antiseptic soaps. Dettol is a mixture of chloroxylenol and terpineol in a suitable solvent is commonly used antiseptic. Bithionol antiseptic is added to soap to provide antiseptic properties to it. Tincture iodine is 2-3% solution of iodine in alcohol and water.

Question 7.
What do you mean by Antibiotics ? Name the first antibiotic.
Answer:
Chemical substances which are produced by mirco-organism and are used to destroy other micro-organism, are called antibiotics. These chemicals checks the life cycle of bacteria and stop reproduction resulting in release from disease. Antibiotics are almost specific for kinds of illness.

The first antibiotic penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928. He was awarded Nobel prize in 1945 for this important discovery. General formula of penicillin is C₉H₁₁N₂O₄S – R. It is a narrow spectrum drug and used in bronchitis, pneumonia, sore throat and abcesses. Before administration, tolerance has to be tested.

By changing the group R, different penicillin are prepared.

Question 8.
Write name and formula of some Antipyretic medicines.
Answer:
Antipyretic:
Chemicals used to reduce the body temperature during fever are called antipyretics. These effect the central nervous system of the body. Like paracetamol. Some chemicals function both as antipyretic as well as analgesic like: Aspirin, Paracetamol, Analgin etc. use of these produce sweat and cool the body. Chemical formula of common

Question 9.
Give definition of antihistamine drug with name and uses.
Answer:
These are amines which controls the allergy effect produced by histamines. Histamine is found in all body tissue and is also released in allergic conditions due to which allergic responses such as tissue inflammation, asthma, itching etc. are introduced in the body. Drugs which prevent the production of histamine and fight against the allergy effects are called antihistamines.
Example:
(i) Entergon:
It is used in strong allergic conditions.

(ii) Benadryl

Question 10.
What are the main differences between soap and detergents ? Ans. Differences between Soap and Detergents :
Soap:

• Soaps are sodium salts of higher fatty acids.
• These cannot be used with hard water.
• Their aqueous solution is alkaline in nature.
• These contain oil and are not good cleansing agent.
• These cannot be used for soft and delicate cloth.

Detergents:

• Detergents are sodium salt of alkyl benzene sulphonate.
• These can be used with hard water.
• Their aqueous solution is neutral in nature.
• These do not contain oil and are better cleansing agent.
• These can be used for soft and delicate cloth.

Question 11.
Explain each with an example.
(A) Antibiotics
(B) Analgesic (Pain Killer).
Answer:
(A) Antibiotics:
Chemical substance which are produced by micro-organism and used to destroy micro-organism are called antibiotics. These are of two types:

• Broad spectrum Antibiotic:
  Example: Tetracycline, chloramphenicol, Penicil-lin.
• Narrow Spectrum Antibiotic :
  Example : Niastatin, Penicillin antibiotic medi-cines are used for the treatment of typhoid, whooping cough, Pneumonia.

(B) Analgesic:
Drugs which give relief from pain or reduced pain are called analge-sics. Types and Examples:

• Narcotics: Morphine, Codeine.
• Non-Narcotics: Aspirin, Analgin, Paracetamol.

Question 12.
What is preservative ? Give the name and formula of any two preserva-tives.
Answer:
A preservative is defined as “A substance added to food, capable of retarding the growth of micro-organism which deteriorate the food within no time’’. The preservative may be natural compounds such as sugars, salt, acids, etc. as well as they may be synthetic i.e. Sodium benzoate.
Example:

• Vinegar or acetic acid : CH₃ COOH
• Sodium benzoate: C₆H₅COONa.

Chemistry in Everyday Life Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Write short notes on:

1. Antifertility drugs
2. Detergents
3. Antacids
4. Sedatives
5. Sulpha drugs.

Answer:
1. Antifertility drugs:
Drugs which are used to check pregnancy in women are called antifertility drugs. Actually, these drugs control the female menstrual cycle and ovulation. The antifertility agent in these drugs are steroids and these drugs are used in the form of oral pills. A mixture of synthetic estrogen and progesterone derivative are used as birth control pill. These are more effective than the natural hormone. Ethynylestradiol and norethindrone are the content of common contraceptive pills.

2. Detergents:
Unsaturated hydrocarbon of ethylene type containing 10 to 18 carbon atoms on treatment with sulphuric acid forms organic acid. Sodium salt of organic acid have moisture absorbing and purification property. This compound is called synthetic detergent. Example: Sodium w-dodecyl benzene sulphonate, Sodium n – dodecyl sulphate.

CH₃ – (CH₂)₁₀ – CH₂ – SO₄Na⁺
Sodium n-dodecyl sulphate

Synthetic detergents have two parts:

• A long chain of hydrocarbon which is hydrophobic (Water repellent).
• Small ionic chain is hydrophilic (Water attracting).

Ionic chain is generally of sulphonate (SO₃Na) or sodium sulphate (SO₄Na). Detergents are surface active compounds which decreases surface tension of water. When these compounds are dissolved in water they scatter dirt particles leaving the surface clean.

Properties of detergents:
Detergents are superior to soap.
1. Detergents can be used in hard as well as soft water because they do not form insoluble salt with calcium and magnesium ions of hard water while soap cannot be used in hard water.

2. Aqueous solution of detergent is neutral. Therefore, detergents can clean soft fibres without damaging them. Soap solution is alkaline due to hydrolysis and is harmful for washing soft fibres.

Uses of detergents:
Detergensts act as cleansing agent. Like soap it can be used for cleaning cotton, woollen, silky and synthetic fibre cloth and for cleaning other domestic items.

3. Antacids:
Substance which remove the excess acid in the stomach and raise the pH to appropriate level are called antacid Calcium carbonate, Sodium bicarbonate, Magnesium hydroxide or Aluminium hydroxide is used in the form of aqueous suspension or tablets to treats hyperacidity. These substances react with excess hydrochloride acid and neutralizes it partially. Nowadays Omeparazole and Lansoparazole are prescribed as antacids.

4. Sedatives:
These are given to those patients who are violent and mentally agitated.
Example:

• Equanil
• Barbituric acid.

5. Sulpha drugs:
Like antibiotics, sulpha drugs are used to kill micro-organism. These are prepared in laboratory. Sulphadiazine, sulphanilamide, sulphathiazole, sulpha guanidine, etc. are important sulpha drugs.

Question 2.
Write notes on the following:

• Tranquillizers and Hypnotics
• Antidepressant.

Answer:
(i) Tranquillizers:
Tranquillizers are the chemical substances which affect higher centers of central nervous systems and reduce anxiety and tension. Tranquillizers are also called psycho-therapeutic drugs. These drugs make the patient passive temporarily so that emotional distress or depression is reduced. The patient restores confidence. These drugs if taken for long-time make the person habitual. Luminal, Barbituric acid, seconal, equanil, etc. are the drugs of this class. These are components of sleeping pills.

(ii) Anti-depression:
These are given to patient for boosting their morals in the stage of acute depressions. Some mood elevator drugs are vitellin, methadone, cocaine, etc. These act on the central nervous system. Person becomes healthy by its use and develop confidence. These should be taken by the advice of doctor. Tophrenil is one such medicine. The amphetemin group of medicine help to upraise the mental level. Its com-mon example is benzedine.

Question 3.
Give one example of Acidic dye and Basic dye.
Answer:
Acidic dye: In these, acidic group like phenolic, sulphonic (SO₃H) are in the form of sodium salts. These colour animal fibre like wool, silk etc. Example: orange I and II.

• Acidic dye: Methyl orange , Methyl red.
• Basic dye: Malachite green, Aniline yellow.

Question 4.
Write example of the following chemicals:

1. Two Analgesics
2. Two Antiseptic
3. Two Antiseptic chemical
4. Two Anti-biotic
5. Two Anaesthetic
6. Two Sulpha drug
7. Two Rocket propellant
8. Two use of chloramphenicol antibiotic.

Answer:

1. Two Analgesic: (i) Morphine, (ii) Aspirin.
2. Two Antiseptic: (i) Dettol, (ii) Bithional.
3. Two antiseptic chemical: (i) Boric acid, (ii) Gention violet.
4. Two Antibiotic: (i) Terramycin, (ii) Streptomycin.
5. Two Anaesthetic: (i) Cyclopropane, (ii) Pelledyne.
6. Two sulpha drug: (i) Sulphonide, (ii) Sulphadyne.
7. Two rocket propellant: (i) Polyurethane, (ii) Ammonium perchlorate.
8. Two use of chloramphenicol antibiotic: (i) In Typhiod, (ii) High fever and diarrhoea.

MP Board Class 12th Chemistry Solutions

MP Board Class 12th Business Studies Important Questions Chapter 13 Entrepreneurship Development

Entrepreneurship Development Important Questions

Entrepreneurship Development Objective Type Questions

Question 1.
Choose the correct answers :

Question 1.
Entrepreneur takes :
(a) Risk n
(b) High risk
(c) Low risk
(d)Normal and fixed risk.
Answer:
(d)Normal and fixed risk.

Question 2.
Out of it which is not a work of entrepreneur :
(a) Taking risk
(b) Provision of capital
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) Day today business (undertaking)
Answer:
(d) Day today business (undertaking)

Question 3.
Out of it which does not discriminate entrepreneur and management:
(a) Entrepreneur search business but managers run them
(b) Entrepreneur are the owner of their own business and manager employee.
(c) Entrepreneur earns profit but managers get salary
(d) Entrepreneur is one time work while management is a continuous process.
Answer:
(d) Entrepreneur is one time work while management is a continuous process.

Question 4.
Chamber of commerce provides services at:
(a) Urban level
(b) State and national level
(c) International level
(d) All the above levels.
Answer:

Question 5.
Out of it which business is not related to successful entrepreneurship :
(a) Research and development
(b) Daily business of life
(c) Continuous newness
(d) Production according to the customers need.
Answer:
(b) Daily business of life

Question 6.
In India entrepreneur development programmer:
(a) Necessary
(b) Not necessary
(c) Waste of money
(d) Waste of time.
Answer:
(a) Necessary

Question 7.
Entrepreneur development programmer provides:
(a) Unemployment
(b) Employment
(c) Cheating
(d) Corruption.
Answer:
(b) Employment

Question 8.
Entrepreneurship:
(a) Takes birth (b) Is made
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) All the above.
Answer:
(c) Both (a) and (b)

Question 9.
Indian entrepreneur developmental organization is situated in :
(a) Ahmadabad
(b) Mumbai
(c) Delhi
(d) Chennai.
Answer:
(a) Ahmadabad

Question 10.
Future of entrepreneur in India is :
(a) Dark
(b) Bright
(c) Difficulty
(d) None of these.
Answer:
(b) Bright

Question 11.
Indian investment centre was established in :
(a) Indian government.
(b) By Madhya Pradesh government.
(c) Maharashtra government
(d) By Gujrat government.
Answer:
(b) By Madhya Pradesh government.

Question 2.
Fill in the blanks :

1. Establishment of entrepreneur development organization was done by __________government.
2. Social and economic development of a nation is the result of __________
3. __________ provides financial help to entrepreneurs.
4. Entrepreneur is a process depended on __________

Answer:

1. Gujrat
2. Entrepreneur
3. ICICI
4. Knowledge.

Question 3.
Write true or false :

1. In India the speed of entrepreneur development is fast.
2. Entrepreneur development organization is situated in Ahmadabad.
3. In India there is need of entrepreneur development programme.
4. Money and time spend on entrepreneur development is a waste of money and time.
5. Entrepreneur Is bomb and are made.

Answer:

1. False
2. True
3. True
4. False
5. True.

Question 4.
Write answer in one word/sentence :

1. Write the name of any one poverty eradication programme.
2. What do you mean by entrepreneur ?
3. “Entrepreneur is a creative process”. Explain.
4. “Entrepreneur is creating confusion theoritically”.
5. In promotion which functions come ?
6. Entrepreneur is not a Science nor art but knowledge is its base. Who said it.

Answer:

1. Jawahar Rozgar Yojana
2. Entrepreneur is one efficiency
3. Pro. Shumpitar
4. William Bemol
5. New technique
6. Peter. F. Drucke’r.

Question 5.
Match the columns :

Entrepreneurship Development Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Why is entrepreneur called the axis of economic progress ?
Answer:
Entrepreneur is called the axis of economic progress because economic development of a nation takes place due to important activities of entrepreneurs only.

Question 2.
Write the characteristics of entrepreneurship.
Answer:
Following are the characteristics :

1. Knowledge base : Entrepreneurship is a knowledge based process. Without knowledge entrepreneur cannot be earned and without experience entrepreneur cannot do any process.
2. Creative process : Nature of entrepreneur is creative. In organization always creative work is done. By creative thinking always efferts are made to increase quality.

Question 3.
Write the main objectives of entrepreneurial development.
Answer:
The main objectives of entrepreneurial development are as follows :

1. To identify and train potential entrepreneurs.
2. Helps in imparting basic managerial understanding.
3. To industrialize rural and backward areas.
4. To generate self employment for the educated unemployment youth.
5. To improve managerial skills of entrepreneur.
6. To develop necessary knowledge and skills amongst the participants.
7. To develop an atmosphere of regional balanced development.

Question 4.
What do you mean by SIDO ?
Answer:
Small Industries Development Organization (SIDO): This was established by the central government in 1954. This organization is rendering its valuable services throughout the country with 27 Small Industries Services Institutes, 31 Branch Institutes, 3 8 Expansion Centres, 4 Regional Observation Centres, 20 Local Observation Centres etc. It is called SIDO in short. SIDO has also established Womens’ Cell for development of women entrepreneurs.

Question 5.
“Entrepreneurship is an internal motivation.” Explain.
Answer:
Entrepreneurship encourages a person to discover, new business opportunities and to implement innovative ideas in practical business life. Entrepreneurship is an internal component not an external component. It helps to bring changes in mentality of persons as it is based on education. A person becomes an entrepreneur by gaining education and experience.

Question 6.
What are the functions of All India Small Industries Board ?
Answer:
All India Small Industries Board : This Board was established in 1954 as an Advisory Committee of the central government. This Board takes decisions regarding policies and programmes for establishment and development of small industries. A central minister is ex-officio chairman of the Board with representatives from central and state governments.

Question 7.
What do you mean by entrepreneur values ?
Answer:
Those values by which determines the personality of entrepreneurs are called values of entrepreneur. On the basis of values of persons one can judge their behaviour and on the basis of individuals judgement of organization can be done. Development of values of personality is that he should respect others and should be honest to others. Due to it personality is developed. Values play important role in family only. Faith is developed among the members of family and various families form sound.

Question 8.
“Entrepreneurship is a professional activity”. Explain.
Answer:
In any business enterprise, it is essential to discover new market, take spontaneous decisions have different leadership and to bring changes in nature of work. Thus like other professions (Law, Medical, Engineering etc.) entrepreneurship. The nature of entrepreneurship is also a profession can be developed like managerial efficiency with the help of education and training.

Question 9.
“Entrepreneurship arises due to environment.” Explain.
Answer:
The success of entrepreneurial development depends much on environmental factors. Entrepreneur makes plans from political, social, economical and legal environment and takes risk to bring some innovations. This entrepreneurship arises due to environment.

Question 10
What do you mean by entrepreneur motivation ?
Answer:
Those continuous activities which motivates the employees to work at all levels of organization is called entrepreneur motivation.

MP Board Class 12 Business Studies Important Questions

MP Board Class 12th Business Studies Important Questions Chapter 12 Consumer Protection

Consumer Protection Important Questions

Consumer Protection Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
When is consumer’s right day is celebrated ?
Answer:
On 15th March consumer’s rights day is celebrated.

Question 2.
Ahmad wants to buy a press (iron). As a aw are consumer how can he convince you about the quality of press ?
Answer:
Ahmad should check I.S.I. mark while purchasing press.

Question 3.
Reeta wants to purchase one packet of juice. She is an aware customer. How can she connived ?
Answer:
Reeta should see F.RO. mark.

Question 4.
Amrit has complained against ‘Amrit Volvo Limited’ in state commission. But he was not satisfied with orders of it. Tell where Amrit can complaint against the commission.
Answer:
Amrit can appeal in the National Commission.

Question 5.
Anjana wants to purchase a golden ring, what she should see on the ring to check quality of ring ?
Answer:
She should see Halmark.

Question 6.
What role does “the right to be heard” play for a consumer ?
Answer:
According to this right if any misbehavior or michchief is done with consumer then he can appeal to the court and has right that his complaint to be heard. The consumers right to be heard includes legal hearing to get redress.

Question 7.
Why is consumer protection important for a consumer ? Give one reason.
Answer:
Consumer protection is important for the protection of unfair practices of producers and sellers.

Question 8.
Write the names of two right under the consumer protection act of 1986.
Answer:

1. Right to safety
2. Right to be informed.

Question 9.
Where is the international organisation set up for standardization ?
Answer:
At the international level the organisation (ISO) was set up in Geneva.

Question 10.
W’hat is Eco-mark scheme ?
Answer:
This scheme has been introduced by the ministry of environment and forest. It signifies that the products fulfill the environmental norms. This scheme is useful for toilet soap, detergents, paints, packaging material, food products, edible oil, etc.

Question 11.
What do you mean by Lok Adalat ?
Answer:
Lok Adalat are those centers where aggrieved parties can approach directly with their grievances. Lok Adalat give patient hearing discuss the issue and give their decision on spot. It is economical and effective system.

Question 12.
What do you mean by public support ?
Answer:
Business needs public support, without it no other business can run successfully. Business needs financial support by time to time like financial institution, banks, government employees, customer etc. Business had provide better quality of product to the society. If we exploit the public it means we destroy our self. We need people to purchase our goods.

Question 13.
What sort of precautions should be observed by consumers ?
Answer:
Consumers must take following precautions :

1. Must acquire all the informations regarding goods purchased or service choosed.
2. Consumer must know name of article, name of manufacturer, instructions of its use etc.
3. Consumer must assure himself about the safety of the product.

Question 14.
What do you mean by public relation ?
Answer:
Public relation means to maintain relation among various people. Newspapers, government press are the sources of it.

Question 15.
What do you mean by consumer ?
Answer:
Under the consumer protection Act 1986 consumer means any person who for consumption purpose: .

1. Buys goods on deferred payment
2. Hires any service for payment
3. Hires any service on deferred payment.

Question 16.
State any two problems of consumer.
Answer:
Two Problems of consumers are as follows :

1. Adulteration of foods (Use of unpermitted colour)
2. Sales of medicines after expiry date.

Question 17.
What do you mean by redressal forum ?
Answer:
Three tier grievances redressal machinery or forum is established through consumer forum.

1. District forum
2. State commission
3. National commission.

Question 18.
Who can be the president of district forum ?
Answer:
The president of consumer forum can be the officiating or retired judge.

Question 19.
Who can appeal before the court for complaint ?
Answer:
Following can complaint:

1. A consumer.
2. A recognized consumer organisor.
3. A consumer or more than one consumer.
4. Central government.
5. State government.

Consumer Protection Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Explain the importance of consumer protection.
Answer:
Importance of consumer protection :

1. Providing legal protection to customers
2. Unorganized consumers
3. ignorance of consumers
4. To protect from exploitation
5. Help in the growth of business
6. Social responsibility of business to protect the interest of owners and other
7. Makes aware of consumers about their rights
8. Speedy disposal of complaints
9. Protection from pollution.

Question 2.
Explain the different rights of consumers.
Answer:
he rights of consumers are as follows :

1. Right to safety
2. Right to be informed
3. Right to be heard
4. Right to receive goods at competitive price
5. Right to be released
6. Right to consumer education
7. Right to consideration
8. Right to healthy environment.

Question 3.
Discuss the ways and means of consumer protection in India.
Answer:
The following ways and means are popular for consumer protection in India :

1. Lok Adalat: Lok Adalat is a place where aggrieved parties can approach directly with their grievances. It gives patient hearing, discuss the issue and give their decision on the spot. It is effective, economic and fast.

2. Public Interest Litigation : It refers to the system which provide legal representation to the poors, consumers, minorities and other weaker groups who are not in a position seek legal remedy of their own public interest litigation can be filled either by aggrieved person or any other person who belongs to weaker group.

3. Consumer Welfare Fund: This fond has been established for promoting the welfare of consumer.

4. Redressal Forums and Consumer Protection Councils: The Consumer Protection Act, 1986; a three tier judicial machinery has been established to settle consumer disputes :

1. District forum
2. State commission
3. National commission.

It provide simple, speedy and economical redressal of consumers disputes.

Question 4.
Explain the importance of non-government organisations (NGOs) for consumer protection.
Answer:
The importance of NGOs in the field of consumer protection are as follows :

1. Generates consumers awareness and provides education to consumers.
2. Organises protests against hording and adulteration.
3. Filing suit on behalf of consumers when needed.
4. Collecting various information and data related with products and using this for consumer protection.
5. Helping government in activities related with consumer protection.

Question 5.
Explain the importance of consumer protection on the point of view of business.
Answer:

1. Satisfaction and welfare of consumers: Consumer protection is important because it ensures to satisfy the needs of consumers and their welfare.

2. Key to survival and growth of business : A business can survive and grow only when it aims at safeguarding the interests of shareholders in general and consumers in particular.

3. Goodwill and image : For building favorable image and goodwill a business undertaking is expected to supply right product of right quality in right quantity at right time and right place to the consumers.

4. Creating and retaining consumers : Customer is the soul of business. A business without customer is meaningless like a body without soul. The main motto of a business must be creating and retaining customers. It is possible only when the customers are satisfied in all respects. .

Question 6.
What do you mean by consumer’s right or rights of consumer ?
Answer:
The consumers of America are more attentive and aware than consumers of India. Compared to India the consumers of America are having more rights and their complaints are settled immediately. President Kennedy laid more stress over consumer rights. He supported the following rights :

1. Right to safety.
2. Right to choice.
3. Right to be informed.
4. Right to be heard.

Other rights have been also given to consumers. For consumer protection International Organization of Consumer Union have been set up.

Question 7.
Who can file a complaint in a consumer court ?
Answer:
A complaint can be made by :

1. Any consumer.
2. Any registered consumer’s association.
3. The Central Government or any State Government.
4. One or more consumers, on behalf of numerous consumers having the same interest.
5. A legal heir or representative of a deceased consumer.

Question 8.
What kind of cases can be filed in a state commission ?
Answer:
A complaint can be made to the appropriate state commission when the value of the goods and services, along with compensation claim exceed 20 lakes but does not exceed 1 crore. The appeals against the orders of a district form can also be filed before the state
commission.

Question 9.
Explain the ways of consumer protection.
Answer:
The consumer protect act has provided three tier judicial machinery for redressing the grievances of consumers.


Question 10.
What is consumer education ? What is the need of consumer education ?
Answer:
It is considered that the consumer is the king of the market. But in the present day consumers are exploited by producers and sellers. They create an illusion in the minds of the consumers through advertisement, publicity and propaganda, so protect the interest of the consumers, consumer education or consumerism has become the need of the hour. Consumerism is an organised social and environmental force which aims at protecting the interest of consumers at large by organizing, writing and awakening the consumers.
Need of consumer educations : The main objectives of consumer education are as under:

1. Awareness about the quality of the product
2. Protection of consumers
3. Information about prices
4. Restriction on exploitation of consumers
5. Awareness of rights
6. Development of consumer organisation
7. Ability to buy appropriate goods
8. Abstaining from buying harmful products
9. To get compensation in case of cheating by sellers
10. To make complaint about the grievances.

Question 11.
What are the salient features of Consumer Protection Act 1986 ?
Answer:
It is the duty of the government to ensure protection to consumers of the country. The government of India has passed various acts for protecting consumer’s interest. The consumer protection act 1986 is one of the most important acts. The salient features of this act are :

1. This act covers all goods and services. It is a comprehensive act.
2. This act does not nullify the provisions of other acts passed for consumer’s protection. It is complementary to all those acts which have been passed in the past.
3. This act provides for establishing consumer forums, at central as well as state level. The main motto of such forums is to

protect consumer’s interest and extend consumer’s right.

Question 12.
How can you say that the scope of consumer protection in wide ?
Answer:
Following points are in support of the answer :

1. It gives information to the consumer’s right and responsibility.
2. It assist consumers to remove their complaint.
3. It provides legal protection to the consumer.
4. It is applicable to all the goods and services.
5. In it all the private and public organisations are

Question 13.
What are the responsibilities of a consumers ?
Answer:
A consumer must be aware about these responsibilities while purchasing, using and consuming goods and services.

1. Consumer must be aware of all their rights.
2. Consumer must be careful while purchasing a product.
3. He should file complaint for the redressal of genuine grievance.
4. Consumer must buy a standardized goods.
5. He should ask for a cash memo on purchase of goods and services.

Question 14.
Explain the responsibilities of business towards consumers.
Answer:
The responsibilities of business toward consumers are as follows :

1. The sell product at reasonable prices
2. To sell quality products
3. To settle complaints of consumers
4. To sell products of high standard and certified by Indian Standards Institute
5. Not to be misleading advertisements
6. Proper packaging of products
7. To collect information about needs, interest, etc. of consumers
8. To provide after sales services.

Question 15.
Write the characteristics of district forum.
Answer:
District Consumer Forum:

1. Establishment: According to consumer protection act, state government can set up one or more district fortifier in each district.

2. Composition: It consists of a president and two other members one of which must be a woman.

3. Term : Every member shall hold office for a term of 5 years or up to the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier and shall not be eligible for reappointment.

4. Jurisdiction : It has jurisdiction to entertain complaints where the value of goods and services and compensation does not exceed Rs. 20 lakhs.

Question 16.
What precautions should be taken by consumer while purchasing goods ?
Answer:
Consumers should keep in mind few things while purchasing products. They are as follows:

1. Consumer should be cautious : Consumer should be cautious while purchasing products. He should insist on getting informations like quantity, quality, price of product, etc.

2. Consumer should exercise his rights : Consumer must be aware of all his rights and must use those rights while purchasing the products and services from sellers.

3. Filing complaint for redressal : Consumers should make the complaints to the authority for genuine grievances. The consumer should be prepared to take action to enforce fair and just demands.

4. Consumer must be aware of misleading advertisements : Through advertisements the seller provides various information about product to consumer, consumers should not believe on these advertisements. He should compare the actual product usage with advertisement. If there is anything false than it should be reported to concerned authorities.

5. Consumer should not compromise on quality : He should never compromise on quality. Whenever he is purchasing products he should look for quality marks on products like ISI, Agmark, Woolmark, FPO, etc., printed on them.

Question 17.
What do you mean by standardization of products ?
Answer:
Standardization of products : These are done to assure the quality of products. The ISI stamp on goods is placed by the Bureau of Indian standards. This caters to industrial and consumer goods. These goods can be trusted to confirm to specific standards. Agmark is meant for agricultural products.

At the international level the international organization for standardization (ISO) located in Geneva sets common standards. The FAO and WHO provide food standards.

Question 18.
What do you mean by legislation concerning consumer rights ?
Answer;
Legislation concerning consumer rights : The consumer protection act 1986 provides for consumer disputes redressal at the state and national level. With the help of this law the agencies can solve grievances in a speedy, simple and inexpensive manner. A separate department of consumer affairs was set up at the state and central government. A three tier system of consumer courts at the National, State and District levels were set up. These agencies have done good work by handling lakhs of cases.

Question 19.
What do you mean by unfair trade practice ? Give some example of it.
Answer:
In unfair means of trade practice a trader adopt the defective and harmful methods to earn profit.
Example :

1. To provide wrong information about the product.
2. Not to follow the fixed standards.
3. Black marketing hording.
4. Sell products on high rate.

Question 20.
What do you mean by indian standard beauro Write any two activites of it
Answer:
It was established in 1986.
Major activities :

1. To establish quality of goods and services
2. To standardize goods under VIS standardization.

Question 21.
What do you mean by Malpractices ?
In order to earn more and more profites the seller perform more profites practices like selling defective and substandard goods, charging exhorbitant prices, negligence as to the safety standard etc. Thus, to protect consumers from these business malpractices consumer protection is essential.

Question 22.
What do you mean by Moral jurisdiction ?
Answer :
Moral Justification: It is the moral duty and responsibility of business to protect the consumers. The sellers should not perform activities like adulteration, black marketing, hoarding, profiteering, etc. By doing so they can discharge their moral responsibility.

Question 23.
Explain the importance of consumer protection from the point of view of business.
Answer:
A business can not survive without paying attention on protection the consumers interest and adequately satisfying them. This is important because of the following reasons:

1. Long term interest of business : Business firms should aim at long term profit maximisation through customer satisfaction, Satisfied customers not only lead to repeat sales but also provide good feedback to prospective customers and thus help in increasing the customer base of business.

2. Business uses Society’s Resources : Business organization uses resources which belong to the society, thus they have .a responsibility to supply such products and render such services which are in public interest.

3. Social responsibility : A business has social responsibility towards various interest groups. Business organizations make money by selling goods and providing services to consumers. Thus, consumers form an important group among the many stakeholders of business and like other stakeholders, their interest has to be well taken care of.

4. Moral justification : The moral duty of any business is to take care of consumer’s interest and securing them from exploitation. Thus, a business must avoid insecure loss, exploitation and unfair trade practices like defective and unsafe products, adulteration, false and misleading advertising hoarding, black marketing etc.

5. Government intervention : A business engaging in any form of exploration time trade practices would invite government intervention or action. Thus, it is advisable that business organization voluntarily resort to such practices, where the customers need and interests will be taken care of.

Question 24.
“Though laws and acts are there still consumers are exploited.” Why ?
Or
”Why there is need of consumer protection ? Write any four causes.
Answer:
The importance of consumer protection are as follows :

1. Consumer’s Ignorance: Today every person is limited to his own work and services and is not interested in other informations that’s why consumer is ignorant about the products which he consumes. Thus, due to this ignorance they are exploited by the sellers and became a poppet. So it becomes necessary that they should be educated about their rights.

2. Social Responsibility : Every person whether he is a trader or an officer first of all is the member of society. As a member of society he is having some responsibilities and duties but every person runs away from responsibilities and works for earning more profits by any means. Thus, consumer protection is necessary to make them aware of their social responsibility.

3. Unorganised Consumers: In India generally the consumers are unorganised because they belong to different castes, religions and sections of society. Due to lack of unity and organization among consumers the sellers make advantage of it. Thus, consumer protection is necessary to make the consumers organised.

4. Settlement of Consumers Disputes : Due to the continuous exploitation of consumers by the sellers they files the complaints to the concerned departments or forums.

These disputes should be settled speedily so that consumers should have faith on law and order. In order to solve the disputes of consumers various acts specially consumer protection act has been enacted.

5. Makes Consumer Aware: Due to continuous exploitation of consumers, consumer protection act 1986 was passed. Thus, consumer have been granted some rights according to the provisions of this act, consumer protection is necessary to make consumers aware about these rights.

Consumer Protection Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Explain in brief any four responsibilities of consumer to safeguard their intrest.
Answer:
The six responsibilites of consumer to safeguard their interest are as follows :

1. To exercise his right properly : Every customer should be well aware of his rights. The consumer who knows these right properly should also make other consumer aware of these rights who are either less informed or ill informed.

2. Taking precautions : Taking proper precaution without taking shelter of legal action is also a responsibility of consumer. It is also a way of protection.

3. Filling complaint for redressal: The consumer should invariably file complaint to the appropriate authority for redressal of genious grievances. He should raise his voice and protest against all sorts of exploitation by trade and industry.

4. Quality and quantity consciousness : The consumer should always make it a point to buy such product which have always quality certification such as ISI, FPO, ISO etc.

5. Escaping misleading advertisement : The consumer should see that he is not tempted by ingenious and misleading advertisement with overstated claim of product and services.

6. Taking cash memo : In case goods are purchase in cash, the consumer should compel the dealer to give cash memo and if goods are purchased on credit basis their bill of purchase must be demanded.

Question 2.
What are various ways in which the objective of consumer protection can be achieved ? Explain the role of consumer organizations and NGOs in this regard ?
Answer:
There are various ways in which the objective of consumer protection can be achieved:

(i) Self regulation by business : Socially responsible firms follow ethical standards and practices in dealing with their customers. Many firms have set up their customer service and grievance cells to redress the problems and grievance of their consumers.

(ii) Business associations : The associations of trade, commerce and business like federation of India Chambers of Commerce of India (FICCI) and conference of Indian Industries (CII) have laid their code of conduct which lays down for their members the guidelines in their dealing with the customers.

(iii) Consumer awareness : A consumer, who is well informed about his rights and the reliefs, would be in a position to raise his voice against any unfair trade practices or exploitation:

(iv) Consumer Organization : Consumer originations plays an important protecting role in educating consumers about their rights and them. These organizations can force business firms to avoid malpractices and exploitation of consumers.

(v) Government: The government can protect the interests of the consumers by enacting various legislations. The legal framework in India encompasses various legislation which provide protection to consumer, the most important of these regulations is the Consumer Protection Act, 1986. The Act provided for a three-tier machinery at the District, State and National levels for redressal of consumer grievance.

Question 3.
Explain the role of consumer organizations and NGO in protecting and promoting consumer’s interest.
Answer:
Consumer organization and NGOs perform several functions for the protection and promotion of interest of consumers. In India, these associations are performing lots of functions some of them are :

1. Education the general public about consumer rights by organizing training programmers, seminars and workshops.
2. Publishing periodicals and other publications to impart knowledge about consumer problems, legal reporting, reliefs available and other matters of interest.
3. Carrying out comparative testing of consumer products in accredited laboratories to test relative qualities of competing brands of publishing the test results for the benefit of consumers.
4. Encouraging consumers to strongly protest and take an action against unscrupulous, exploitation and unfair trade practices of sellers.
5. Providing legal assistance to consumers by providing aid, legal advice etc. in seeking legal remedy.
6. Filling complaints in appropriate consumers courts on behalf of the consumers.
7. Taking an initiative in filling cases in consumers court in the interest of the general public, not for any individual.

Question 4.
What are the rights of consumer in India ?
Answer:
Following are the rights of the consumer under the act of 1986 :

(1) Right to Safety : The consumer has a right to be protected against goods and services which are hazardous to life, e.g., sometimes we purchased the food items of low quality which causes severe problems. Thus, in this case, we should purchased good quality and FPO labelled products.

(2) Right to be informed : The consumer has a right to have complete information about the product, which he intends to buy including its ingredients, date of manufacture, price, quantity, directions for use etc. Under the legal framework of India manufactures have to provide such information on the package and label of the product.

(3) Right to Choose : The consumer has the freedom to choose from a variety of products. The marketers should offer a wide variety of products and allow the consumer to make a choice and choose the product which is most suitable.

(4) Right to be Heard : The consumer has a right to file a complaint and to be heard in case of dissatisfaction with a good or a service. It is because of this reason that many enlightened business firms have set up their own consumer service and grievance cells.

(5) Right to Seek Redressal: The consumer Protection Act provides a number product, of reliefs to the removal of defect consumer including replacement of the in the product, compensation paid for any loss or injury suffered by the consumer etc.

(6) Right to Consumer Education : The consumer has a right to acquire knowledge about products. He should be aware about his rights and the reliefs available to him in case of a product service falling short of his expectations many consumer organisation and some enlightened businesses are taking an active part in educating consumers in this respect.

Question 5.
Enumerate the various Acts passed by the Government of India which help in protecting the consumer’s interest ?
Answer:
The Indian legal framework consists of a number of regulations which provide protection to consumers. Some of these regulations are as under:

(1) The Consumer Protection Act, 1986 : The Act provides safeguard to consumers against defective goods, deficient services, unfair trade practices etc.

(2) The Contract Act, 1982 : The Act lays down the conditions in which the promises made by parties to a contract will be binding on each other.

(3) The Sale of Goods Act, 1930 : The Act provides some safeguards and reliefs to the buyers of the goods in case, the goods purchased do not comply with express or implied conditions or warranties.

(4) Essential Commodities Act, 1955 : The Act alms at controlling, production, supply, distribution and price of essential commodities.

(5) The Agricultural produce Act, 1937 : The Act prescribes grade standards for agricultural commodities and livestock products.

(6) The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954 : The Act aims to check adulteration of foods articles and ensure their purity, so as to maintain public health.

(7) The Standards of Weights and Measures act, 1976 : It provides protection to consumers against the malpractice of under-weight or under-measure.

(8) The Trade Marks Act, 1999 : The Act prevents the use of fraudulent marks on products and thus provides protection to the consumers against such products.

(9) The Competition Act, 2002 : The Act provides protection to the consumers in case 01 practices adopted by business firms which hamper competition in the market.

(10) The Bureau of Indian Standard Act, 1986 : The bureau has two major activities : Formulation of quality standards for goods and their certification through the BIS certification scheme. The bureau has also set up a grievance cell, where consumers can make a complaint about quality of products carrying the ISI mark.

Question 6.
Explain the redressal mechanism available to consumers under the Consumer Protection Act 1986.
Answer:
For the redressal of consumer grievances, the Consumer Protection Act provides for setting up of a three-tier enforcement machinery at the District, State and the National levels.

(i) District Forum: A complaint can be made to the appropriate District Forum when the value of goods or services, along with the compensation claimed, does not exceed 20 lakhs. In case the aggrieved party is not satisfied with the order of the District Forum, he can appeal before the State Commission within 30 days.

(ii) State Commission : A complaint can be made to the appropriate State Commission when the value of the goods or services, along with the compensation claimed, exceeds 20 lakhs but does not exceed 1 crore. The appeals against the orders of District Forum can also be filed before the State Commission. In case the party is not satisfied with the order of the State Commission, he can appeal before the National Commission within 30 days of the passing of the order by State Commission.

(iii) National Commission : A complaint can be made to the National Commission when the value of the goods or services, along with the compensation claimed exceeds 1 crore. The appeals against the orders of a State Commission can also be filed before the National Commission. An order passed by the National Commission in a matter of its original justification is appealable before the supreme court. This means that only those appeals, where the value of goods + services in question, along with the compensation claimed, exceeded I crore and where the aggrieved party was not satisfied with the order of the National Commission, can be taken to the Supreme Court of India.

What are the responsibilities of a consumer ?
Answer:
A consumer should keep in mind the following responsibilities while purchasing, using and consuming goods and services :

1. (1) Be aware about various goods and services available in the market, so that an intelligent and wise choice can be made.
2. (2) Buy only standardised goods as they provide quality assurance. Thus, look for ISI mark on electrical goods. FPO mark on food products and Hallmark on jewellary etc.
3. (3) Learn about the risks associated with products and services.
4. (4) Read labels carefully, so as to have information about prices, weight, manufacturing and expiry dates etc.
5. (5) Assert yourself to get a fair deal.
6. (6) Be honest in your dealings. Choose only from legal goods and services.
7. (7) Ask for a cash-memo on purchase of goods and services. This would serve as a proof of the purchase made.
8. (8) File a complaint in an appropriate consumer forum in case of a shortcoming in the quality of goods purchased or services availed.
9. (9) Form consumer societies which would play an active part in educating consumers and safeguarding their interests.
10. (10) Respect the environment, avoid waste, littering and contributing to pollution.

Question 8.
Explain how the complaint shall be made to the district forum ?
Answer:
Manner in which complaint shall be to made to the district forum : A complaint in relation to any goods sold or delivered or against services should be filed by the consumer. It can be filed by any recognized consumer association or by the central or state government.

One copy is send to the opposite party, directing him to give his version of the case within a period of 30 days when the opposite party on receipts of the complaint referred to him, denies the allegations contained in the complaint or fails to take any action. He represents his case within the time given by the district forum, the district forum shall proceed to settle the consumers dispute.

After following the procedure, examining the statements of the complaint, the opposite party and witness of both, the district forum passes necessary orders and relief if any. The district forum is authorized to pass order to remove the defect points out to replace the goods with new goods, to pay the compensation.

Any person aggrieved by an order made by the district forum may prefer an appeal against such order to the state commission with the date of 30 days.

Question 9.
Explanation some measures for the protection of consumer by Indian government.
Answer:
Following are the measures taken by Indian government:

(1) Lok Adalat: Lok Adalat are those centers where aggrieved parties can approach directly with their grievances. Lok Adalat give patient hearing discuss the issue and give their decision on spot. It is economical and effective system.

(2) Filling Petition for the Public Welfare : Under it legal actions are taken for the protection of those people who don’t have any representatives. In this disputes poor, environment, minorities, etc. are included.

(3) Eco friendly products : Environment and forest ministry has started Eco mark plans. Under it a big pot of mud is the mark which is used for such products which are eco friendly. In the beginning some goods like soaps, detergents, packaging material, food materials etc. are included in there products. These goods are not harmful for environment.

(4) Consumer protection council: Under the consumers act 1986 one legal mechanism was formed on 3 tier level under it all the exploitations of consumers are settled. State governments established consumer protection councils for the settlement of disputes.

(5) Giving award for fighting against consumer exploitation : For the encouragement of youths, some awards are given to those who fight against consumer exploitation.

(6) Publicity measures : 15th March is celebrated as world consumer day. In 1955 in New Delhi a function was held in which publicity measures were taken. On television every week programmed are organized. Short films are also made in favor of it.

MP Board Class 12 Business Studies Important Questions

MP Board Class 12th Business Studies Important Questions Chapter 7 Directing

Directing Important Questions

Directing Objective type Questions

Question 1.
Choose the correct answer :
Question 1.
Out of the following which is not a part of direction :
(a) Motivation
(b) Communication
(c) Supervision
(d) Delegation
Answer:
(d) Delegation

Question 2.
Principle of motivation which was sequenced as per necessity, was formulated by :
(a) Ford Louis
(b) Scott
(c) Abraham Maslow
(d) Peter F Drucker.
Answer:
(d) Peter F Drucker.

Question 3.
Out of the following which is monetary motivation :
(a) Promotion
(b) Stock encouragement/incentives
(c) Post/security job
(d) Employee share/co-partnership.
Answer:
(d) Employee share/co-partnership.

Question 4.
Grapevine is :
(a) Formal communication
(b) Barrier/obstacle in communication
(c) Lateral communication
(d) Informal communication.
Answer:
(d) Informal communication.

Question 5.
The software company established by Narayan murthy :
(a) Infosys
(b) Wipro
(c) Satyam
(d) HCL.
Answer:
(a) Infosys

Question 6.
On the path of leadership, specify the handles faced by a leader :
(a) Mistakable behaviour leader
(b) Leader who is unaware of human tendency
(c) Unforeseeable leader
(d) All the above.
Answer:
(d) All the above.

Question 7.
Direction starts from :
(a) Top level
(b) Middle level
(c) Lower level
(d) All the levels
Answer:
(a) Top level

Question 8.
Communication means:
(a) Distribution of work
(b) To formulate information each other
(c) Control of work
(d) To motivate the employee
Answer:
(b) To formulate information each other

Question 9.
When a message is converted into a format it is known as :
(a) Medium
(b) Feed back
(c) encoding
(d) De coding
Answer:
(d) De coding

10. Out of the following, which is not a monetary motivation :
(a) To stop/with hold increase in salary
(b) Increase in salary
(c) Bonus
(d) All the above.
Answer:
(a) To stop/with hold increase in salary

Question 2.
Fill in the blanks :

1. Direction is the function of …………….
2. Direction flows from top……………. to……………. level of management.
3. …………….refers to instructing, guiding, communicating and inspiring people in the organization to achieve the desired goal.
4. Deduction in salary of employee is motivation.
5. The act of stimulating someone to set a desired course of action is known as …………….
6. Supervisor works as a link between……………. and …………….
7. Written communication is more …………….
8. Verbal communication is exchange of words mode through …………….
9. Monetary motivation gives …………….to the employees on the achievement of goals.
10. In negative motivation employees are……………. if the task is not accomplished with in the given time.
11. Motivation is …………….

Answer:

1. Management
2. Top, bottom
3. Direction
4. Negative
5. Motivation
6. Management ,worker
7. Reliable
8. Conversation
9. Rewarded
10. Punished
11. Internal peace.

Question 3.
Write the answer in one word/sentence :

1. Which method of communication is suitable in case of emergency ?
2. What is the name of informal communication ?
3. Which type of communication spreads rumours and creates misunderstanding ?
4. What do you mean by economic security ?
5. What is the ability to influence subordinate called ?
6. What are the main elements of direction ? ,
7. How do manager start the work in organization ?
8. Fill the left reasons :
   Direction = Supervision +……………. + Leadership + Motivation.
9.  Direction has three elements, supervision, leadership and motivation, which is the fourth element ?
10. Give four examples of incentives.
11. What does post means in organization in reference to management ?
12. Who is a leader ?
13. Write one example of non-monetary motivation.
14. Which function of management in called functional management ?
15. On what the desire to do some specific work by a person depend ?
16. What is profit sharing ?
17. Food, clothing and housing are of what type of wants ?
18. Write one advantage of informal communication.

Answer:

1. Informal communication
2. Grapevine network
3. Informal type of communication
4. By economic security we mean to secure the employment and to make arrangement for old age
5. Leadership ability
6. The main elements of direction are as follows :
   1. Leadership
   2. Motivation
   3. Supervision
   4. Communication
   5. Co-ordination
   6. Training
   7. Command
7. Manager starts the work by direction
8. Direction = Supervision + Communication + Leadership + Motivation
9. Communication is the fourth element
10. Facility of servant, Education of children, Car,  Free housing
11. In organization post means position or place of a person in organization
12. A leader is a person responsible to ensure that all the followers develop positive attitude, posses required skills and knowledge to perform effectively and with harmony
13. Promotion
14. Direction
15. On motivation
16. Profit sharing is a type of incentive where company decides that if it earns profit over and above a fixed percentage then the excess profit earned will be shared among employees
17. Economic wants
18. By informal communication workers get psychological satisfaction.

Question 4.
Write true or false :

1. Direction is needed at all levels of management.
2. Supervision, leadership, motivation a communication are important elements of direction.
3. Direction and supervision is synonyms.
4. The motivation theory which classifies needs in hierarchical order is developed by Abraham Maslow.
5. Leadership is required for only less salary workers.
6. Written communication requires direct contact between both parties.
7. If employees are efficient, then training is not required.
8. Leader uses informal means to show his influence.
9. By communication we mean exchange of ideas.
10.  All managers are leaders.

Answer:

1. True
2. True
3. False
4. True
5. False
6. False
7. False
8. False
9. True
10. True.

Question 5.
Match the columns :

Answer:
1. (g)
2. (a)
3. (b)
4. (c)
5. (d)
6. (e)
7. (f)

Directing Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What is the function of management known ? Which directs the organization, provides guidance, suggestions and motivations
Answer:
Direction.

Question 2.
Name two principles of direction.
Answer:

1. Unity of command
2. Leadership.

Question 3.
Which element of direction means observing the subordinates at work to ensure that they are working according to the schedules and plans and to help them in solving problems related to work ?
Answer:
Supervision.

Question 4.
How is sound important during the process of communication ? Give example.
Answer:

1. Loud voice
2. Problem in internet connection
3. Disturbance in telephone connection.

Question 5.
Give an example of psychological constraint.
Answer:
Lack of concentration.

Question 6.
Which are positive motivations ?
Answer:
Salary or wages incrementalist, recognition, reward, pension, leave salary etc.

Question 7.
Which are negative motivations ?
Answer:
Threat, punishment.

Question 8.
What is lateral informal communication also known as ?
Answer:
Grapevine communication.

Question 9.
Salary, allowances and bonus are what type of motivation ?
Answer:
Financial motivation.

Question 10.
Which communication spreads rumours and develops misunderstanding ?
Answer:
Informal communication.

Question 11.
What is the aim of direction ?
Answer:
Execution.

Question 12.
How does the management stats/begins its work in an organization ?
Answer:
A management formulates guidelines and directions to begin a work in an organization.

Question 13.
How does motivation work as an inspiration to do a task ?
Answer:
Motivation enhances the level of ability of employees and inspires them to achieve the goal. ‘

Question 14.
Among whom does the leadership shows the relationship ?
Or
The leadership shows the relationship among whom ?
Answer:
The leadership shows the relationship between the leader and followers.

Question 15.
What is the principle of follow up ?
Answer:
The principle of follow up states that the management must supervise its employees to check whether their employees are following the directions given to them.

Question 16.
What are dependency elements to find the status of an employee in the organization ?
Answer:

1. Rights of the individual
2. Responsibility
3. Other benefits.

Question 17.
When does motivation start ?
Answer:
Motivation starts when his desires or wants are unsatisfied because motivation is a psychological element.

Question 18.
When does tension start ?
Answer:
Tension starts when our wants are not satisfied.

Question 19.
When is a person tension free ?
Answer:
A person is tension free when all his needs are satisfied.

Question 20.
“Direction starts function of management”. Explain.
Answer:
Direction starts functioning because it prepares base for other functions of man-agement.

Question 21.
How many elements of direction are there ?
Answer:
There are four elements of direction :

(a) Supervision
(b) Motivation
(c) Leadership
(d) Communication.

Question 22
What is a motive ?
Answer:
Motive literally means stimulating a person for willingness to work.

Question 23.
What is motivation ?
Answer:
Motivation means to provide someone with a motive. It is a complex force inspiring a person to work, to use his capacities willingly for achieving certain objectives. It is a process of arousing action, sustaining the activity in progress and regulating the pattern of activity.

Question 24.
What is motivator ?
Answer:
It is a technique to motivate people in an organization.

Question 25.
How many types of motivators are there ?
Answer:
Motivators are of two types :
(a) Positive
(b) Negative.

Question 26.
In what type of communication rumours are there ?
Answer:
In informal communication rumours are found.

Question 27.
What do you mean by coaching leadership ?
Answer:
Coaching leadership involves teaching and supervising followers.

Question 28.
How many types of communications are there ?
Answer:
There are three types of communication :
(a) Verbal communication
(b) Written communication
(c) Formal communication.

Question 29.
What do you mean by verbal communication ?
Answer:
Verbal communication is that communication in which exchange of words is made through spoken words.

Question 30.
Why a good leader should have the quality of initativeness ?
Answer:
To take opportunity of having profit.

Question 31.
Food, housing and clothings are what type of wants ?
Answer:
Physical wants.

Question 32.
Love, affection and friendship are what type of wants ?
Answer:
Social wants.

Directing Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What is direction ? Write definition
Answer:

After planning, organizing and staffing, for the achievement of managerial objectives directing is one of the most important factor, without proper direction the other functions of management are not having any importance. Through direction only the work of planning, organizing and motivation work can be completed. Directing provides movement to the organization.

Meaning of direction : The word direction literally means moving into action i.e., activating human resources towards attaining the objectives of the business of the business. Direction is the answer to the questions like how the work should begin ? or how the employees should be led ? Direction is the practical aspect of management involving motivation, supervision, communication and effective leadership of human resources.

Definitions : Some eminent scholars had given the following definitions :
According to Kooatg and O’Donnel : “Direction is a complex function that includes all those activities, which are designed to encourage a subordinate”.

Question 2.
Is direction important function of management do you agree give your points in case of difference in opinion.
Answer:
No, I don’t agree. According to me, Direction is the most important function of management because

1. Starts the task
2. Way of communication
3. Creates balance in the organization
4. Assimilates the efforts of the employees.

Question 3.
Distinguish between leader and manager.
Answer:
Differences between Leader and Manager:

Question 4.
Write any four functions of direction.
Answer:
Following are the functions of direction :

1. Order: The main function of direction is to give orders to his subordinates.

2. Supervision: The supervisor observes the subordinates at work to ensure that they are working according to schedules and plans.

3. Guidance and training : Guidance and training subordinates is essential. This is done by direction process.

4. Co-ordination : The another function of direction is to maintain co-ordination among the various workers of organization.

Question 5.
Distinguish between Leader and Boss.
Answer:
Differences between Leader and Boss :

Leader

1. High level leaders are present to control leaders.
2. Leader always uses the word ‘we’ in his organization.
3. Social responsibility is having an important place in leadership.
4. Leader guide their followers through motivation.
5. Leaders cannot make their followers work through fear or negative motivation.
6. There is no place for punishment of followers in leadership.
7. Suggestions or opinions are invited from followers if necessary in leadership and it is also accepted by the leaders.

Boss

1. No one is above the boss in an enterprise.
2. Boss always uses the word ‘I’ in his organization.
3. There is no place for social responsibility in bossism.
4. It guide their subordinates and employees through orders.
5. It make their subordinates work through fear and negative motivation.
6. For the errors committed by the subordinates there is provision of punishment in bossism.
7. Suggestions or opinions are generally not invited from subordinates and the decision is taken by the management.

Question 6.
Explain the Importance/Elements of direction.
Answer:
Direction is one of the important function of management. On the basis of elements oi direction it is also called as operating management. The elements of direction are as follows:

1. Leadership : Leadership may be defined as the process of influencing the behaviour of other members of the group to attain the objectives of enterprise. Leadership is the ability of the manager to induce subordinates to work with confidence and zeal. According to Tead, “Leadership is that combination of qualities by the possession of which one is able to something done by others, chiefly because through this influence they become willing to do so. “In this way the qualities of leadership is also found in direction.

2. Motivation : Motivation is a Latin word, meaning to move. Human motives are internalized goals within individuals. Motivation is the process of creating organizational conditions which will compel employees to strive to attain company’s goals.
Although motivation has been defined by different persons in different ways, they all have the same meaning. All these management experts have said to arouse dedication towards work, desire, interest etc.

3. Supervision: Supervision means observing the subordinates at work to ensure that they are working according to the schedules and plans and to help them in solving problem related with work. Supervision is a work of higher ability and knowledge. Supervisors provides necessary guidelines to the subordinates for the effective completion of work. Thus, supervision is an element of direction.

4. Communication : Although communication is the secondary function of management, its importance cannot be undermined. That is why some management experts have put it in the primary function of management. Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more persons. Coordination also consists of the qualities of direction.

5. Coordination : Due to the effect of modem contrast views and will to work freely, coordination has been an important task of management. It is called as mutual understanding also. Coordination aims at an orderly arrangement of group effect for the achievement of desired ends. Coordination also consists of some elements of direction.

6. Training : Training is the base of healthy management. Training is a process by which effort is mode to increase the knowledge and skill of employees for the accomplishment of a specific job. It imparts the practical knowledge of work which is given by high level officials. Proper guidelines are given by high official to trainee in process of training. Thus training also consists of some qualities of direction.

7. Command : For the completion of work order or command is given by superiors to subordinates. The subordinates complete the work according to the command given by superiors. Thus, command is also a kind of direction.

Question 7.
How many types of motivations are there ?
Answer:
There may be two broad categories of motivation. They are positive motivation or reinforcement or negative motivation.

1. Positive motivation : It is the process of attempting to influence others to do your will. They may be further subdivided into two category. These are :

1. Monetary and
2. Non-monetary motivation.

a. Monetary : When finance is directly related to motivation, is known as monetary motivation. Thus, motivation in the form of money is monetary motivation. Example of monetary motivation are bonus, extra allowance, a share in profits, increase in wages etc.

b. Non-monetary motivation : When a person is satisfied in any other way a part from money then it is called non-monetary motivation. Non-monetary motivation is not at all connected with money. Non-monetary motivation are the psychic rewards or the rewards of enhanced position that can be secured in the work organization,

2. Negative motivation : Negative motivation is a motivation that prohibits a person from doing some act which may be detrimental to the organization.
Example of negative motivation are :

1. Deducting salary
2. Suspension
3. Issue of show cause notices
4. Rebukes, monetary penalization
5. Penal transfer and so on.

Question 8.
Write the functions of a supervisor
Answer:
Functions of a supervisor is as follows :

1. Supervise the work: Supervisor is a major branch whose main work is to organised, direct and supervise the work.
2. Co-ordination : It is another important work of the supervisor to make bring and maintain co-ordination in the branch.
3. To achieve the goal: Directors set the goal for the branch and it is the job of the supervisor to work accordingly and achieve the goal.
4. Maintain departmental accounts: Supervisor has to maintain records of expenses,incomes of the department, expenses made on the employees etc.

Question 9.
Explain the elements of communication process. :.
Answer:
The element of communication process are :

1. Sender: Individual who conveys information sender is a source of communication.
2. Message : It is the content of information intended to be communicated.
3. Encoding : It is the process of converting the message into communication.
4. Media: It is the path through which encoded message is transmitted to the receiver.
5. Decoding : it is the process of converting encoded symbols of the sender.
6. Receiver : The person who receives communication message of the sender.
7. Feedback : Information given by receiver to indicate his understanding of the information.
8. Noise: It is the hindrance or obstruction to communication. It may be the sender, receiver or the message itself.

Question.10
“Motivation is the act of stimulating someone”. Explain.
Answer:
Motivation is something that motivates a person into action and continue him in the course of action willingly to get the results expected of him. It refers to the way in which desires and aspirations direct, control or explain the behaviour of human beings. It also refers to carrying out the task properly and with loyalty to the group that has accepted the task.

The success of management depends on efficiency. In turn, the efficiency of employees depends upon their professional capability and desire to work. In the absence of desire to work, the professional capabilities will not be tapped to its fullest potential. So it is said that motivation is the act of stimulating someone.

Question 11
Explain the importance of supervision.
Answer:
The importance of supervision can be justified from the following points :
1. Supervision is a motive power : Effective direction and supervision motivates the employees to work hard for the enterprise. Without motive power the work cannot be accomplished within the time limit. Thus for the completion of work in time direction plays an important role.
2. To maintain discipline : If proper discipline is not maintained in the organization than enterprise cannot prosper. Since production is a team work therefore disciplined efforts of all the individuals under the command of supervisor is necessary.
3. Improves communication : A situate of quarrel or dispute arises in an organization due to lack of communication “but through supervision directions are given by top level management and in return feedback is given by employees. So supervision improves communication in an organisation.
4. Better utilization of resources : The available resources of organisation like mate-rial, machinery, employees are properly utilized under supervision. All these resources are monitored closely by the supervisors which helps in completion of effective work within the time limit.
5. Feedback : Supervision maintains contact with his subordinates. This helps in receiving the suggestions, ideas, complaints etc. of employees. It facilitates the process of
reviving feed back and helps to take many

Question 12.
Distinguish between : Monetary motivation and Non-monetary motivation. ‘
Answer:
Differences between Monetary and Non-monetary Motivation
Monetary Motivation

1. It is suitable in case of workers.
2. Monetary incentives are measured in terms of money.
3. Monetary motivation includes salary or wages, allowances, bonus, rewards, profit sharing etc.
4. Monetary motivation helps in satisfying lower level needs like food, shelter and clothing.

Non-monetary Motivation

1. 1.It is suitable in case of managers.These incentives cannot be measured in terms of money.
2. 2.Non-monetary motivation includes status, job security, recognition, reward or punishment, responsibility etc.
   Non-monetary motivation helps in satisfying high level needs like love, affection, recognition, status or self system needs like position, fame etc.

Question 13.
Why a leader should have the quality of communication ?
Answer:
A leader should have a quality of communication because of the following reasons:

(1) A leader is a source of information for all the members of his group. Subordinates get the information of their officers through leaders only.

(2) Leader sends the problems of his subordinates to the higher level officers. For this leader should have good communication quality.

(3) To establish friendly relation among the members and the sub ordinate and officers a leader should have quality of communication.

Question 14.
Write the characteristics of leadership.
Answer:
Following are the characteristics of leadership :

1. Existence of followers : The first characteristic of leadership is the existence of followers and followers should accept the leader. If the number of followers will increase than it will also increase the importance of leader.

2. Continuous process : Leadership is not needed on any particular occasion but it is needed all the time. In the day to day business activities effective and continuous leadership is required.

3. Influencing process : Leadership means bringing to under one’s own influence. It is that process through which the people in a group are influenced in such a way that followers automatically start using their ability for the betterment of organization.

4. Develops relationship and Confidence : Leaders develop close relations with the followers. Leader is also required to gain confidence otherwise he will be changing decisions which will be very tough to be followed.

5. Related to particular situation : Leaders always work according to situations because if they are not going to work according to perfect situation, then difficulties will arise.

Question 15.
Explain the terms motive, motivation and motivator.
Answer:

1. Motive : Motive literally means stimulating a person for willingness to work. It is an internal desire which gives strength person to move forward.
2. Motivator : It is a technique which is used to motive people in an organization. For example bonus, promotion, etc.
3. Motivation : Motivation is a psychological phenomenon that inspires a person to perform maximum task and provides maximum satisfaction.

Question 16.
Explain the characteristics of motivation.
Answer:
Following are the characteristics of motivation :

1. Continuous process : Whatever be the motivation, after some times, its effect gradually diminishes. Therefore, in order to maintain a worker’s interest in his job, the process of motivation should be continuous. Motivation is affected by time, place and circumstances. Therefore, these should be kept in mind while motivating.

2. Psychological effect: The famous management expert, McFarland, says, “The concept of motivation is mainly psychological by which the mind is inspired with a fresh idea to do some work”.

3. Motivation is related to human being : Motivation is done by man for man. A company, firm or an organization cannot be motivated. Therefore, motivation is related with human beings. However, even the animals can be motivated.

4. Motivation wholly influences a person : Motivation influences not only a man’s ears, nose, eyes and hands but it affects the whole body of a person and the willingness to work can only be inspired when the whole body of a person is influenced.

5. Important task of management : Motivation is an important function of management by which the human force can be molded in the desired direction. By motivation, the worker is inspired to work which in turn increases his working capacity. For these reasons, motivation has become the important function of management.

6. Motivation is an inspiration : Motivation has a human nature. Inspiration comes from within a man. This inspiration is intrinsic which results in increased working capacity of a man. Thus, motivation is an internal inspiration.

Question 17.
What do you mean by transaction ?
Answer:
Transactional leadership : This is a leadership that maintains or continues the status quo. It is also the leadership that involves an exchange process, whereby followers get immediate, tangible rewards for carrying out the leader’s orders. Transactional leadership can sound rather basic, with its focus on exchange.

Being clear, focusing on expectations, giving feedback are all important leadership skills. According to Boundiess.com, transactional leadership behaviors can included : clarifying what is expected of followers’ performance, explaining how to meet such expectations and allocating rewards that are contingent on meeting objectives.

Question 18.
Write the meaning of facilitative leadership.
Answer:
Facilitative leadership: Facilitative leadership is too dependent on measurements and outcomes-not a skill, although it takes much skill to master. The effectiveness of a group is directly related to the efficacy of its process. If the group is high functioning, the facilitative leader uses a light hand on the process.
On the other hand, if the group is low functioning, the facilitative leader will be more directives in helping the group run its process. An effective facilitative leadership involves monitoring of group dynamics. Offering process suggestions and interventions to help the group stay on track.

Question 19.
Write the features of supervision.
Answer:

1. Supervision is done at all three levels of management.
2. It is the main part of direction function of management.
3. It is a continuous process.
4. It ensures if the work is going on smoothly or not.
5. Its main aim is to utilize the resources properly.

Question 20.
Decribe the importance of leadership in organization.
Answer:
The role of leadership is very important in any organization the importance of leadership is clear from the following facts :

1. A good leader defines and explains the objectives of the group to his followers in order to achieve the targets.

2. A good leader develops the spint of cooperation among his followers. He can easily resolve the internal dispute and differences among the followers.

3. A good leader persuade his followers to accept and carry out the desired changes in the present dynamic environment of the structure and working of an enterprise.

4. A competent leader serves as the proper representative of his followers. He protects the interest of his followers and acts as a spokesman.

Question 21.
Explain the term ‘Motivation’ and ‘Leadership’.
Answer:
Motivation : In motivation, there is a psychological element. This element stimulates the mind of a person for willingness to work in. Motivation is a human element of management and it cannot be used like we make a machine to work by the push of a button. A person works only when his willingness to work is stimulated. Motivation is also called encouragement. The term ‘Motivation’ is derived from the work ‘Motive’ which literally means’ stimulating a person for willingness to work. Different management experts have defined motivation differently. Henri Fayol calls it ‘Command’, Koontz and Donnell ‘Direction’ and Likert calls it ‘Heart of Management’. What is mean by them is to maintain the worker’s interest, devotion and spirit to work ?

Leadership : Leadership is the ability to awaken in order the desire to follow a common objective. Leadership is the quality of behavior of individuals, whereby they guide people or their activities in organizing efforts.

Question 22.
Write the characteristics of formal communication.
Answer:
Following are the characteristics of fonnal communication :

1. Formal communication is generally written.
2. Communication of messages is through scalar chain.
3. While moving from one person to another communication has to pass through a definite channel.
4. The channel of communication in this type’is not established automatically.
5. It is the result of authorities granted and duty assigned by the organization.

Question 23.
Write the characteristics of supervision.
Answer:
Characteristics are as follows :

1. It is a main part of direction.
2. It is an universal process which is done at all levels of management.
3. It is a continuous process which is required all the time.
4. It ensures if the work is done properly or not.

Question 24.
Write the characteristics of informal communication or grapevine network.
Answer:
Characteristics of Informal Communication :

1. It is a direct and verbal communication.
2. It moves in a zig-zag manner like a grapevine.
3. It is the result of mutual relationship among employees.
4. It spreads rumours and creates misunderstanding.
5. It is difficult to trace its source and direction of flow.
6. It is not possible to fix responsibility with respect to informal communication.
7. It may involve work related matters or social matters.

Question 25.
Write the advantages of formal communication.
Answer:
Advantages :

1. It is an orderly and systematic type of communication.
2. This system is less expensive for communicating messages.
3. It can be used as reference in the future.
4. In this system written messages are complete and clear.
5. It is generally written so it helps in resolving disputes.
6. Organization can be controlled effectively through formal communication.

Question 26.
Write the defects of formal communication.
Answer:
Disadvantages:

1. The suggestions and complaints of employees are overlooked by the officers.
2. The process of formal communication is time taking hence message is delayed.
3. Time and money is invested a lot in formal communication.
4. It is not suitable for small enterprises.
5. There is lack of personal contact in formal communication.
6. It overloads higher authorities with work.

Question 27.
What are the defects of informal communication ?
Answer:
Disadvantages:

1. It spreads rumours and develops misunderstanding.
2. There is lack of secrecy in this type of communication.
3. It is not possible to fix the responsibility with respect to informal communication.
4. It is difficult to trace its source and direction of flow.
5. There is no proof for sending information in this communication.
6. It is unreliable and unauthentic type of communication.
7. It is not possible to trace the origin of informal communication.

Question 28.
What are the advantages of informal communication ?
Answer:
Advantages :

1. It travels faster than formal communication because it is not required to follow scalar chain.
2. It is one of the simple, easier and cheap system of communication.
3. Quick feedback is ascertained in this type of communication.
4. This method is suitable in case of emergency.
5. It establishes better human relations.
6. There is more freedom in informal communication which helps the solution of difficult problems.
7. It satisfies the social needs of workers.

Question 29.
Write the types of communication on the basis of media, direction and method.
Answer:

1. communication on the basis of media :

1. Formal
2. Informal.

2. Communication on the basis of direction :

1. Towards low
2. Towards high
3. Parallel
4. Slanting.

3. On the basis of method ,:

1. Oral
2. Written
3. Indicator.

Directing Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Give a detailed account of non-monetary incentives that an organization can adopt in motivating employees.
Answer:
Incentives may be extrinsic, intrinsic, monetary and non-monetary which are given as under:

1. Job security : Job security implies that an employee would continue to work for the organization, enjoying economic and social security through health and welfare programs like providing security against sickness, unemployment, disability, old age and death.

2. Opportunities of promotion: Every person desires to promote his career till he reaches the highest authority level and for this he works with full interest and dedication. So, it is the responsibility of the employer that he should make suitable arrangements for promotional prospects. Efficient, able and experienced employees should be given the benefit of promotion.

3. Reward and punishment : Rewards refer to appreciation or recognition and the efficiency of the worker, whereas punishment serves as a negative motivation. In other words, it prohibits a person from performing undesirable actions.

4. Status : Status refers to the social rank of a person. Management often iris to satisfy egoistic needs by establishing status symbols and distinction in its organization. Individuals try hard to gain this status symbol.

5. Favourable work environment : Both physical and mental environment in the organization should be conducive to good work. In the absence of a good work environment, the worker gets disturbed and is not able to put in his / her best. The management should try to remove the irritants which creep in and spoil the environment.

6. Recognition : Recognition satisfies human need for esteem by others and for self-esteem. This recognition may be shown in the form of praise or a pat on the back of the employees or a recommendation for a pay raise, promotion or assignment of more interesting work.

Question 2.
What are the essential qualities of an effective leader ?
Or
Discuss any four qualities of a good leader.
Answer:
The essential qualities of an effective leader are as follows :

1. Intelligent :This is one of the most important quality of a leader. He should be intelligent enough to find out the problems and suggest the solution. Without intelligence a person cannot become a good leader. An intelligent leader can take perfect decisions for the enterprise.

2. Attractive personality : Leader should have such type of personality so that followers or subordinates should get attracted towards him. His work and behaviour should also attract the followers.

3. Self confidence : An effective or good leader should have strong will power and self confidence to lead the followers. He should be brave to face the difficult and extreme situations.

4. Knowledge of rules and regulations : A good leader should have the complete knowledge of rules and regulations related with work. To perform the work systematically he should have the knowledge of rules and it should be communicated to the followers also

5. Honest: Leader should always work with honesty because if they are not performing the work honestly then it is going to effect their reputation and the followers will not support the leader.

6. Forward looking : A good leader should always be forward looking. He should make the plans after studying the previous plans, future plans are made. He should have the quality of forecasting.

7. Scientific outlook : An efficient leader should have scientific outlook. He should not be superstitious. All the information should be collected regarding a problem and it should solved one by one with patience.

Question 3.
Distinguish between : Formal communication and informal communication.
Answer:
Differences between Formal Communication and Informal Communication

Question 4.
Eplain Maslow’s need hierachy theory of Motivation and its assumptions.
Answer:
Since motivation is highly complex, many researchers have studied about motivation from several dimensions and developed some theories. These theories help to develop understanding about motivation phenomenon. Among these, Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory is considered fundamental to understanding of motivation. Let us examine it in detail.
Abraham Maslow, a well-known Psychologist in a classic paper published in 1943, outlined the elements of an overall theory of motivation.

His theory was based on human needs. He felt that within every human being, there exists a hierarchy of five needs. These are:

(i) Basic Physiological Needs : These needs are most basic in the hierarchy and corresponds to primary needs. Hunger, thirst, shelter, sleep and sex are some examples of these needs. In the organisational context, basic salary helps to satisfy these needs.

(ii) Safety/Security Needs: These needs provide security and protection from physical and emotional harm. Examples: job security, stability of income, Pension plans etc.,

(iii) Affiliation/Belonging Needs : These needs refer to affection, sense of belonging , acceptance and friendship.

(iv) Esteem Needs : These include factors such as self-respect, autonomy status, recognition and attention.

(v) Self Actualization Needs : It is the highest level of need in the hierarchy. It refers to the drive to become what one is capable of becoming. These needs include growth, self-fulfillment and achievement of goals.

Maslow’s theory is based on the following assumptions:

1. People’s behaviour is based on their needs. Satisfaction of such needs influences their behaviour.
2. People’s needs are in hierarchical order, starting from basic needs to other higher level needs.
3. A satisfied need can no longer motivate a person; only next higher level need can motivate him.
4. A person moves to the next higher level of the hierarchy only when the lower need is satisfied.

Maslow’s Theory focuses on the needs as the basis for motivation. This theory is widely recognised and appreciated. However, some of his propositions are questioned on his classification of needs and hierarchy of needs. But, despite such criticism, the theory is still relevant because needs, no matter how they are classified, are important to understand the behaviour. It helps managers to realise that need level of employee should be identified to provide motivation to them.

Question 5.
What do you mean by styles of leadership ? How many types are there ?
Answer:
Some leaders cannot work comfortably with a high degree of followers’ participation indecision making. Some employers lack the ability or the desire to assume responsibility. Furthermore, the specific situation helps determine the most effective style of interactions. Sometimes leaders must handle problems that require immediate solutions without consulting followers.

1. Autocratic Leadership: Autocratic leadership style is centered on the boss. In this leadership the leader holds all authority and responsibility. In this leadership, leaders make decisions on their own without consulting subordinates. They reach decisions, communicate them to subordinates and expect prompt implementation. Autocratic work environment does normally have little or no flexibility. In this kind of leadership, guidelines, procedures and policies are all natural additions of an autocratic leader. Statistically, there are very few situations that can actually support autocratic leadership.

2. Decmocratic Leadership : In this leadership style, subordinates are involved in making decisions. Unlike autocratic, this headship is centered on subordinates’ contributions. The democratic leader holds final responsibility, but he or she is known to delegate authority to other people, who determine work projects.
The most unique feature of this leadership is that communication is active upward and downward. With respect to statistics, democratic leadership is one of the most preferred leadership, and it entails the following: fairness, competence, creativity, courage, intelligence and honestly.

3. Laissezfaire Leadership: Laissezfaire leadership gives authority to employees. According azcentral, depaftments or subordinates are allowed to work as they choose with minimal or no interference. According to research, this kind of leadership has been consistently found to be the least satisfying and least effective management style.

4. Strategic Leadership : Strategic leadership is one that involves a leader who is essentially the head of an organization. The strategic leader is not limited to those at the top of the organization. It is geared to a wider audience at all levels who want to create a high performance life, team or organization.
The strategic leader fills the gap between the need for new possibility and the need for practicality by providing a prescriptive set of habits. An effective strategic leadership delivers the goods in terms of what an organization naturally expects from its leadership in times of change. 55% of this leadership normally involves strategic thinking.

5. Transformational Leadership : Unlike other leadership styles, transformational leadership is all about initiating change in organizations, groups, oneself and others.

Transformational leaders motivate others to do more than they originally intended and often even more than they thought possible. They set more challenging expectations and typically achieve higher performance.

Question 6.
Explain the functions of supervisor.
Answer:
For any activity of the organisation, supervisor is responsible. Supervisor per-forms all the basic functions of management like planning, organizing, directing etc. The functions of supervisor is mentioned in American act. The functions are as follows:

1. Planning the work: Supervisor is one of the important officers of an organisation. He is responsible for the work of organisation. He has to chalk out the daily and weekly programme and present it before the higher officials. Supervisors should be effective planners.

2. Organising the section : Supervisor is required to distribute the work of his department and also regroup the identical functions. He has to seek the effective cooperation and coordination of employees. He works for making the foundation of organization strong.
3. Motivation: Motivation is a power which encourages the employees to work hard. Supervisor motivates employees and creates team spirit. Supervisors create interest of employees towards work of enterprise.

4. Training and Instructions : The labours and lower level employees are having direct and close relationship with supervisors. The preliminary work of training is provided by supervisors. Instructions and guidelines are also given time to time by the supervisors.

5. Achieving the targets : The most important duty of the supervisor to achieve the targets of his department. The supervisors uses the best possible resources of the organisation to achieve the organisational goals.

Question 7.
What do you mean by Financial motivation ? Explain the various type of it,
Answer:
Meaning : When a person is motivated to work with monetary methods, it is called monetary motivation. Thus, a person is satisfied with money. This is also called financial motivation. Under this method, the employer spends money on the various satisfaction needs of the employees by keeping in mind their essential needs.
The following methods have been included in monetary motivation which are all positive:

1. Salary or Wages : An employee is motivated to put in more work when he is paid sufficient wages according to the nature and importance of the job assigned.

2. Allowances and Bonus: The employer grants various allowances to workers. Thus, the employees can be provided satisfaction by granting them necessary allowances depending on the place of work and also by sanctioning one or two bonus during a year. Bonus is like a reward which keeps the employees cheerful and happy.

3. Gratuity and Pension: This two benefits are available after completion of service. The employees are fully satisfied and work harder with loyalty when they are notified during the tenure of service about the facility of pension and gratuity. The employees work with complete devotion when their future is thus secured.

4. Premium and Holiday Salary: Premium means share in economies due to increase in production. When the employees is granted free bonus, gifts and earned leave, he is motivated to work even during leave period. When there is a benefit of overtime allowances in addition to this, it has a positive effect on the performance of the employees.

5. Fringe Benefits and Reward : Fringe benefits are facilities provided free by employers in the absence of which the employees have to bear the expenses e.g., house, car, furniture, domestic servants etc. When they get these fringe benefits, the employees are motivated for higher work as they are satisfied with the comforts of life. Similarly, rewards or gifts granted at the time of Holi, Diwali and other festivals, are also added source of satisfaction for the employees,

6. Contribution to Provident Fund : This is a fund involving contributions by both the employer and employees which is deposited in the employee’s account in equal monthly installments. In order to motivate the employee for higher work and satisfy his needs, the employer can increase his contribution the fund.

Question 8.
What do you mean by Negative motivation. Explain some of them.
Answer:

Negative motivations may be both monetary and non-monetary. These have negative nature in human behaviour. These encourage extracting work by fear of force as opposed to welfare of human beings. Such motivations are considered suitable for ‘Management by Force’. There is no place for such negative motivations in today’s efficient and competent management system. However, sometimes it becomes necessary to resort to these motivations also. The negative motivations are :

1. Deduction of Salary : A portion or percentage of salary is deducted by way of monetary punishment when an employees does not work properly or to his full capacity. The employees tries to work efficiently for fear of deduction from salary. This negative monetary motivation.

2. Demotion: To post a worker in lower post downgrading him from his original post is called demotion. Workers try to perform efficiently as they are afraid of demotion. This is a negative monetary motivation.

3. Fear: By scaring employees that they will be drive out of job or complaint will be made against them with the top management or by threatening them with any other bodily harm, management compels employees to work harder. This is a negative monetary motivation.

4. Physical Punishment : This is a negative motivation which is applied on workers in the lower level where only physical labour is done. This is a negative motivation.

5. Removal from Job : Removal from job results in unemployment and therefore, the workers try to work harder and with greater efficiency for fear of unemployment. This motivation is adopted in many small or large industries and this is particularly adopted in case of unsuitable and inefficient workers.

6. Insult: Insult is a big blow to those employees who have high self-pride therefore, such employees always try to work efficiently and to their full capacity. This practice is prevalent in private organizations and is negative in nature.

Question 9.
Write the difference between direction and supervision.
Answer:
Differences between Direction and Supervision
The differences between direction and supervision are as follows

Question 10.
Describe the principles of direction.
Answer:
The principle of direction are as follows :

1. Principle of maximum contribution : According to this principle. The employees should be motivated in such manner that they should give their maximum contribution to the enterprise.

2. Principle of Harmony of objectives: According to this principle there should be harmony among the individual objective of employees and objective of enterprise. Both should work together and should not create hurdles.

3. Principle of unity of command : This principle requires that the employees should receive orders from one superior only for any action or activity. It means workers in a department are required to be accountable to one superior for complying with the orders for performing a job. Multiplicity of command lead to misunderstandings and confusion in the enterprise.

4. Principle of effective communication : According to this principle the hurdles of communication are removed and it is monitored whether sent message is received in the same manner and understood in the same form or not.

5. Principle of Informal organization : Informal organization is used to remove the demerits of formal organization and to creat an environment of free communication. Its aim is to develop an attitude of taking initiative among employees.

6. Principle of leadership : The subordinate should be provided effective leadership by top level executives and through its personality the leader should bring positive (creative) changes in the employees.

Question 11.
Explain briefly the importance of directions.
Answer:
The importance of directing is clear from the following facts :

1. Initiating activities : All the activities of a business enterprise are initiated through directing. The motto of directing is to activate the sub-ordinates to work to achieve the desired goals.

2. Improving efficiency : Motivation and leadership from part of directing which persuade the sub ordinates to work to the best of their ability and contribute maximum to achieve the pre-determined objectives of an enterprise.

3. Facilitating change : The present business environment is subject to frequent charges. An enterprise has to adjust and mould itself according to such changes.

4. Stabilization and Growth : Efficient directing ensures the stability and growth of a business enterprise if can lend it to right direction. Directing helps as making maximum use of ability the efficiency.

Question 12.
Explain importance of supervision.
Answer:
In the older days supervision was not having a lot of importance but nowadays supervision is a must in all the enterprises. The supervision makes the best possible utilisation of physical resources and also directs human effects to desired goals . Supervision exists at every level, location and operation throughout the organization. Top level management supervises the work of middle level while middle level managers supervises the employees. Supervision is the process of checking and comparing the performance of personnel in the organization. The importance of supervision can be justified from the following points :

1. Supervision is a motive power: Effective direction and supervision motivates the
employees to work hard for the enterprise. Without motive power the work cannot be accomplished within the time limit. Thus for the completion of work in time direction plays an important role.

2. To maintain discipline : If proper discipline is not maintained in the organization than enterprise cannot prosper. Since production is a team work therefore disciplined efforts pf all the individuals under the command of supervisor is necessary.

3. Improves communication : A situate of quarrel or dispute arises in an organization due to lack of communication but through supervision directions are given by top level management and in return feedback is given by employees. So supervision improves communication in an organisation.

4. Better utilisation of resources : The available resources of organisation like material, machinery, employees are properly utilized under supervision. All these resources are monitored closely by the supervisors which helps in completion of effective work within the time limit.
5. Feedback : Supervision maintains contact with his subordinates. This helps in receiving the suggestions, ideas, complaints etc. of employees. It facilitates the process of receiving feedback and helps to take managerial decisions.

Question 13.
Write the importance of motivation.
Answer:

1. Development of Human Relations : The thought of establishment of cordial human relations is the keystone of an ideal business enterprise. It will never be easy to achieve the objective in an organization unless cordial relations between management and workers’ groups are established. Human relations can be established by creating an atmosphere of cordial relations between management and labour though motivation. In any organization, it should be accepted that the worker is ‘first human being and then worker’.

2. Achievement of goals within time : The success of any enterprise depends not only in achieving the goals but also achieving them within time. A manager may arrange good quality material and the best machines to produce the product, but the machines and material cannot be properly utilized if the employees working there do not have full dedication and willingness to work. Therefore, motivation is necessary to achieve the goals’

3. Increase in Production : Motivation results in improvement in efficiency as the employees work with increased zeal which in turn results in increased production.

4. Full Utilization of Efficiency: It will not be out of place to agree that “Full utilization of efficiency cannot be achieved without motivation”.

5. For better Organization : To basis of any organization is that it should be better organized. A perfect organization can be established only by satisfying human needs and the basis of human satisfaction is motivation. E.F.L. Breach says, “Organization is the reflection of motivation”.

6. Reduction in Absenteeism : The growing awareness and, for some other reasons, the labour absenteeism etc. is becoming a problem to every organization. The main reason behind absenteeism is monotony. To change this monopoly into zeal and dedication can be achieved only by motivation. Therefore, absenteeism can be prevented by motivation.

Question 14.
What is meant by managerial leadership? Explain briefly the qualities of a good leader.
Answer:
Leadership may be defined as the process by which influence is made on the behaviour and performance of others in group efforts towards the achievement of specific goals in a given situation. The leader influences the followers in such a way that they willingly strive towards the fulfillment of common objectives.

Definitions : “Leadership is the ability of a manager to induce subordinates to work with confidence and zeal. ” —Koontz and O’ Donnell
“Leadership is the activity of influencing people to strive willingly for mutual objectives. ” —George R. Terry
“Leadership in interpersonal influence exercised in a situation and directed through communication process, towards the attainment of a specified goal or goals. ”
Qualities of a Good Leader :

1. Sound Physique : A good leader must have good health and physical fitness. He requires tremendous stamina and vigor for hard work.

2. Intelligence : A leader should be intelligent enough to examine problems in the right perspective. He should have the ability to assess the pros and cons of his actions in a particular situation.

3. Objectivity : A leader should have and objective outlook, free from bias and prejudice. He should form his opinion and judgement on the basis of facts alone. He needs an open mind, is willing to listen to others and adopt new ideas.

4. Flexibility : A leader should be flexible or open minded i.e., he should be ready to absorb new ideas as may be demanded by the situation. He should be prepared to accommodate other view points and alter his decision if need be.

5. Self-Confidence : Self-Confidence is essential to motivate the subordinates and boast up their morale. He should have confidence in himself whenever he takes any decision or initiates any cause of action.

6. Sense of Responsibility : A leader should be prepared to shoulder the responsibility for the consequences of any steps he takes. He should be aware of the duties and obligations associated with the position held by him.

Question 15.
Distinguish between verbal and written communication.
Answer:
Differences between Verbal and Written communication

Question 16.
Write the importance of direction.
Answer:
Following are the importance :

1. Direction initiates action : The employees cannot start their work until they are not informed about what to do ? And how to do ? This work is performed by the manager through direction. Thus, direction initiates action in as organization.

2. Helpful in making plans : One of the elements of direction is communication through which the contact is made between different levels of management. Necessary modifications and changes can be brought in plans with the help of direction.

3. Means of motivation : For the achievement of organizational objectives, direction motivates the employees to contribute to the best of their abilities. Motivated employees work with full dedication and with a full of belonging.

4. Necessary at ail levels of management : Direction is performed at all the three levels of management. Direction is required more at the lower level, less at medium level and lesser at top level of management.

5. Provides stability : Direction brings stability and balance is the organization. Stability is brought through effective supervision, motivation, leadership and communication.

6. Facilitates changes : Through effective communication and leadership enterprise can cope with the changing conditions of environment. Effective direction induces the employees to accept changes and challenges.

Question 17.
Distinguish between Monetary motivation and Non-monetary motivation.
Answer:
Differences between Monetary and Non-monetary Motivation

Monetary Motivation

1. It is suitable in case of workers.
2. Monetary incentives are measured in terms of money.
3. Monetary motivation includes salary or wages, allowances, bonus, rewards, profit sharing etc.
4. Monetary motivation helps in satisfying lower level needs like food, shelter and clothing.
5. Monetary motivation provides financial burden to the organization or enterprise.
6. As the monetary incentives are measured in terms of money thus it is visible.
7. Labour unrest and disputes arises due to the.denial of monetary incentives.
8. It not only fulfils the physiological needs but also the need for social status and power.

Non-monetary Motivation

1. It is suitable in case of managers.
2. These incentives cannot be measured in terms of money.
3. Non-monetary motivation includes status, job security, recognition
4. reward or punishment, responsibility etc. Non-monetary motivation helps in satisfying high level needs like love, affection, recognition, status or self esteem needs like position, fame etc.
5. Non-monetary motivation does not provide any financial burden to the organization.
6. As the Non-monetary incentives are not measured in terms of money thus it is invisible.
7. Labour unrest and disputes does not arise due to the denial of non-monetary incentives.
8. It satisfies the emotional and psychological needs of employees.

Question 18.
Distinguish between Leader and Boss.
Answer:
Difference between Leader and Boss
leader

1. High level leaders are present to control leaders.
2. Leader always uses the word ‘we’ in his organization
3. Social responsibility is having an important place in leadership.
4. Leader guide their followers through motivation.
5. Leaders cannot make their followers work through fear or negative motivation.
6. There is no place for punishment of followers in leadership.
7. Suggestions or opinions are invited from followers if necessary in leadership and it is also accepted by the leaders.

Boss

1. No one is above the boss in an enterprise.
2. Boss always uses the word ‘I’ in his organization.
3. There is no place for social responsibility in bossism.
4. Boss guide their subordinates and employees through orders.
5. Boss make their subordinates work through fear and negative motivation.
6. For the errors committed by the subordinates there is provision of punishment in bossism.
7. Suggestions or opinions are generally not invited from subordinates and the decision is taken by the boss himself.

Question 19.
Explain the process of communication.
Answer:
Communication refers to an art of transferring facts, ideas, feelings etc. from one person to another and making him understand them. Communication is the soul of modem large scale enterprises. Communication is a systematic process of creating mutual understanding through creation of messages.
Communication process is required at all stages. According to Kootz O’Doonel, communication process is:

Necessity → Need → Tension Process/act → Satisfaction.
At first when there is necessity of something, then it converts to need. To fulfill this need a person is tension and to get rid of this tension he acts and follows a process and when he achieves the desired target he is satisfied.

Communication helps to make the employee realize the necessity and need to attain the goal. For this motivation and encouragement is given to attain the desired target by which satisfaction is achieved.
This leads to growth of employee and achievements of goals of the organization.

This leads to growth of employee and achievements of goals of the organization.

Question 20.
Describe the barries of an effective communication
or
Discuss any four barriers of the effective communication.
Answer:
The barriers or obstacles to an effective communication are as follows :

1. Barriers to organizational structure : The structure of any organization also affects the communication system. If the organization is big having various level then there will be various obstacles because due to many levels. The message or information will have to move through their levels. Due to many levels correct in information to the right person at right time through right medium becomes difficult.

2. Barriers to language : Language communication is an easy medium of communication. Different languages are spoken in different regions. Technical terms of language causes difficulties in understanding the language is same.

3. Barriers to status : In formal organization there is a formal relation between the officers and employees of top level and lower level. The emotions and behaviours of officers towards employees also effects effective communication.

4. Shortage of time: Due to shortage of time effective communication is not properly performed. Generally its should be kept in mind while sending information that receiver should have enough time to work on the information.

5. Geographical distance : Geographical distance is also an obstacle in the way of communication. Fax, Internet, Satellite system has solved this problems of geographical distance but these facilities are limited to cities and this facility is used by a specific class. These facilities cannot be used by a common man as it is expensive.

MP Board Class 12 Business Studies Important Questions

MP Board Class 12th Accountancy Important Questions Chapter 9 Analysis of Financial Statements

Analysis of Financial Statements Important Questions

Analysis of Financial Statements Objective Type Questions

Question 1.
Choose the correct answer:

Question 1.
Under which financial analysis, data of two or more than two years are written together for comparative study :
(a) Horizontal analysis
(b) Vertical analysis
(c) Cash analysis
(d) Ratio analysis.
Answer:
(a) Horizontal analysis

Question 2.
The analysis in which one figure is compared with an other figure and which shows the relationship between the two is called:
(a) Break even analysis
(b) Ratio analysis
(c) Trend analysis
(d) General analysis.
Answer:
(b) Ratio analysis

Question 3.
Break even point depicts:
(a) Profit
(b) Loss
(c) No profit no loss
(d) Gross profit.
Answer:
(c) No profit no loss

Question 4.
Analysis of reasons for changes in cash is:
(a) Fund flow statement
(b) Cash flow statement
(c) Trend Analysis
(d) None of these.
Answer:
(b) Cash flow statement

Question 5.
The main objective of financial statement analysis is:
(a) To know about profitability
(b) To check the financial statement
(c) To satisfy various interest holders
(d) To full fill the formalities.
Answer:
(a) To know about profitability

Question 2.
Fill in the blanks:

1. The point at which total cost is equal to total revenue is called ……………
2. The analysis depicting the changes in working capital during the year is called ……………
3. The method of financial analysis in which the relationship between various items of balance sheet and profit /
4. loss account is established is called …………… analysis.
5. Only such information are included in financial statement which can be expressed in terms of ……………
6. The analysis which is used to judge the trend of operations of an enterprise and computed in relation to a base year is called ……………

Answer:

1. Break even point
2. Fund flow analysis
3. Vertical
4. Money
5. Trend analysis.

Question 3.
Match the columns:

Answer:

1. (b) Disclosing natural relationship by comparative study of mathematical expression
2. (a) To represent the changes in working capital
3. (c) Cash flow analysis and use of cash
4. (e) Break even as point.
5. (d) Trend analysis no profit and no loss

Question 4.
Write true or false:

1. Liquidity ratio refers to establishing relationship between current assets and current liabilities.
2. Fund flow statement does not represent the changes in working capital.
3. The point at which total cost is equal to total revenue is called break even point.
4. The position of cash balance and various uses of cash cannot be known through cash flow analysis.
5. The trend various items can be expressed in terms of percentage through trend analysis.

Answer:

1. True
2. False
3. True
4. False
5. True.

Question 5.
Write the answer in one word/sentence:

1. The method of reviewing and analysing financial statements for a specific period.
2. The other name of vertical analysis is.
3. The analysis which represent the trends of various items in form of percentages is called as.
4. The ratio which discloses relationship between current assets and current liabilities is called.
5. The point at which total cost is equal to total revenue is called.

Answer:

1. Vertical analysis
2. Common size analysis
3. Trend analysis
4. Liquidity ratio
5. Break even point.

Analysis of Financial Statements Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you mean by analysis of financial statements ?
Answer:
Analysis of financial statements is a process in which the data of various head are compared so as to,-find out a relationship in an effective manner by classifying them in a simple form so that significant result may be obtained regarding financial strength or weakness of the company. The process of analysis and interpretation of financial statements help in deriving important conclusions and knowledge about business operations.

Question 2.
Write three characteristics of analysis of financial statements ?
Answer:
The following are the three characteristics of financial statements :

1. To represent the complex data present in financial statements in a simple form.
2. To divide the various items of financial statements under clear and appropriate heads.
3. To compare various items so as to find out changes among them and help in taking out appropriate inferences.

Question 3.
What do you mean by comparative statements ?
Answer:
The statements is which figures for two or more year are places side-by-side to facilitate comparison are called comparative statements. The figures pertaining to production, expenditure, sale profit etc. are shown comparatively side by side so as to draw conclusions about the profit earning capacity liquidity profitability and financial soundness of the concerning  business.

Question 4.
What is fund flow Statement?
Answer:
Fund flow statement is a statement prepared in a summary form which brings into light the cause of changes in working capital during the year. Such statements comprises the sources of funds, uses of funds and the changes in net working capital. This statement also reach the various sources from where the firm received funds and the areas in which these funds were utilized.

Question 5.
What is cash flow analysis ?
Answer:
Cash flow analysis shows inflows and outflows of cash in a concern during a particular accounting period. Cash means cash and cash equivalents, while flow means movement of cash. It explains reasons for the changes in cash position of an enterprise. This analysis helps the managers / directors to find out why there was scarcity of cash in business despite. The firm earned profit and why there is cash balance available despite the firm incurred loss.

Question 6.
What is break even point analysis ?
Answer:
The term break even point refers to that point at which the total cost are just equal to total sales. A business concern neither earns profit nor suffers a loss at this point. It is also called Neutral point.

Question 7.
Name the different tools of financial analysis.
Answer:
The following tools or devices are used for financial analysis :

• Comparative financial statement.
• Trend analysis.
• Common size statement.
• Fund flow statement.
• Cash flow statement.
• Ratio analysis.
• Break even point analysis.

Question 8.
What do you mean by liquid assets ?
Answer:
Liquid assets refers to that assets which can be converted into cash without any diminution in the value of asset for example cash in hand, cash at bank (these two assets are itself liquid), bill receivable and short investment. For calculating liquid asset from current asset stock and prepaid expenses left out.

Analysis of Financial Statements Short Answer Type Questions 

Question 1.
Explain objectives of financial statement analysis.
Answer:
The following are the main objectives of financial statement analysis.

1. Knowledge of earning capacity or profitability of business:
The main object of analysis is to know whether there is appropriate profit on invested capital or not. It enables computation of earning capacity of the business and estimation of future earning capacity as well.

2. Knowledge regarding solvency:
The financial analysis helps to determine the short-term as well as long form solvency of the concern.

3. Knowledge of financial position:
Analysis of financial statement enables us to know the financial strength of the business enterprise. Through analysis of financial statement we can ascertain whether requisite funds will be available for purchasing fined assets from integrate resources of business or not.

4. To know about capability of payment of interest and dividend:
Through analysis of financial statement we can easily ascertain the capability of business under taking to pay interest and dividend regularly. We can ascertain whether there is sufficient profit for this purpose.

5. Knowledge of trend of business:
Analysis of financial statements help us to make a comparative study of balance sheets of business of various years. The trends of purchase, sale gross profit etc. can be easily compared with that of previous year. Such compression help us to investigate the weakness, irregularity and remedial measures can be taken for improvement.

6. Valuable information for management:
One of the principal objective of the analysis of financial statement is to know the weakness or drawbacks of the undertaking. This analysis makes valuable data and information available to the management for further decision and planning.

Question 2.
Explain the importance of analysis of financial statements.
Answer:
Financial analysis is usually significant to the following categories of persons:

1. Significance for management:
The management needs to know what progress of
business has been towards its objectives of profitability, economic soundness turned etc. it is from the analysis they can be made available. On the basis of facts of analysis the management is able to compare the business with other business. Financial analysis reveals the shortcomings which can be removed by making effective policies. ‘

2. Significance for investors:
Investors invest their money with the expectation of a good return. They take decision on the basis of information disclosed for profitability, solvency and trend of business. They can compare the business with other business and the analysis of current year with previous year of the same business and finalize their plans regarding investment.

3. Significance for creditors and debenture holders:
Short term creditors are interested to know liquidity position of the business. This can be obtained through solvency ratios. Similarly the long – term creditors particularly debenture holders want to know the timely return of interest on debentures and the security of money invested in the form of debentures. They can obtain the knowledge regarding long-term solvency of the company through the analysis of the financial statements.

4. Significance for Government:
Government has to take various decisions for the economic development of the country. Government frames the industrial policy. The financial analysis is helpful for the formation and execution of financial and economic policies of Government.

5. Significance for financial institutions:
Financial institutions play important role in industrial and commercial development. Bank, life insurance corporation, ICICI bank, HDFC bank. Industrial development bank advance mid term and long – term loan to business concerns. For deciding the rate of interest, return of loan etc. they take the help of analysis of financial statements.

6. Significance for others:
Financial analysis has importance to other categories of society. The employees are interested to know the profitability of concern. On this basis they can demand for increase in salary. Economists, researches, analysts, tax authorities also receives the useful information through analysis of financial statements of business concerns.

Question 3.
Explain the limitations of financial statement analysis.
Answer:
The following are the limitations of financial statement analysis:

1. Limitations of financial statements:
Financial statement themselves have a number of limitations and so the analysis of financial statements suffers from limitations. Financial statement in fact, are based on accounting concepts and communications and so the analysis of such statement clear not prove meaningful.

2. Affected by window dressing:
It is generally seen that window dressing is adopted in financial statements to conceal the bad aspect of financial position. It adversely affects then analysis of financial statements.

3. Based on past events:
Financial statements represents the record of part events and historical facts. It is based on previous year data and events. The result of financial analysis can not disclose the possibilities of future. Hence, the conclusions derived from them can not be used for the purpose of forecasting.

4. Ignores the changes in price level:
If price level changes are not taken into consideration, the results of analysis of financial statements may be misleading Ratios of different years will not be useful for comparison if the prices of commodities are different. The ratios may improve due to increase in prices whereas the actual efficiency remains unchanged. Correct results of two financial years can be obtained when the price one. Stable other set the result of analysis of financial statement may be misleading.

5. Effect of personal decision of analysts:
Analysis of financial statements are affected by personal decisions taken by accountants analysts themselves such as methods of charging depreciation valuation of stock, writing off revenue expense’s etc The rationality of such decisions depends upon the ability, honesty and experience of the analysts. Thus, financial statements and conclusions derived from then may be biased.

6. Ignores the qualitative element:
Analysis of financial statements does not measure the qualitative aspects of business concern. It disclose only those information which can be expressed in terms of money. It does not exhibit the skill, technical know how and efficiency of staff and management. Hence the analysis is one-sided measure. It shows one sided performance of a business undertaking.

7. Limited use of single year’s analysis of financial statements:
If analysis of financial statements is done for one year then from that analysis correct conclusion cannot be taken. Hence, it is necessary to analysis financial statements of few years.

Question 4.
Write the characteristics of analysis of financial statement
Answer:
Following are the characteristics of financial analysis:

• To present the accounting data in a simple and understandable form.
• To classify the items of profit and loss account and balance sheet in convenient and related groups.
• To make comparison between different groups to interpret different conclusions.
• Financial analysis clarify the changes in the financial items.
• There are various techniques for financial analysis.

Question 5.
Prepare comparative Income statement from the following particulars for the year ended 31st March 2017 and 31st March 2018.

Solution:
Comparative Income Statement

Question 6.
From the following details make out a comparative income statement:

Solution:
Comparative Income Statement

Question 7.
From the following in formation prepare a comparative statement for the year ended 31^st March 2008 and 31st March 2009.

Solution:
Comparative Income Statement For the year ended 2008 and 2009:

MP Board Class 12 Accountancy Important Questions

MP Board Class 12th Chemistry Solutions Chapter 13 ऐमीन

Students can also download MP Board 12th Model Papers to help you to revise the complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

ऐमीन NCERT पाठ्यनिहित प्रश्नोत्तर

प्रश्न 1.
निम्नलिखित एमीनों को प्राथमिक, द्वितीयक व तृतीयक एमीनों में वर्गीकृत कीजिये

1.

2.

3. (C₂H₅)₂CHNH₂
4. (C₂H₅)₂NH.
उत्तर

1. प्राथमिक (1°)
2. तृतीयक (3°)
3. प्राथमिक (1°)
4. द्वितीयक (2°).

प्रश्न 2.

1. अणुसूत्र C₄H₁₁N से प्राप्त विभिन्न समावयवी एमीनों की संरचना लिखिए।
2. सभी समावयवी के IUPAC नाम लिखिए। .
3. विभिन्न युग्मों द्वारा किस प्रकार की समावयवता प्रदर्शित होती है ?

उत्तर

समावयवता-
(i)-(iv) तथा (vi)-(vii) स्थान समा-वयवता, (v)-(vi) तथा (v)-(vii) मध्यावयवता। (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) तथा (i)-(iii) श्रृंखला समावयवता दर्शाते हैं।

प्रश्न 3.
आप निम्नलिखित परिवर्तन कैसे करेंगे

1. बेंजीन से एनिलीन
2. बेंजीन से N, N डाइमेथिल एनिलीन
3. Cl-(CH₂)₄-CI से हेक्सेन 1, – 6 डाइएमीन।

उत्तर

प्रश्न 4.
निम्नलिखित को उनकी बढ़ती क्षारीयता के क्रम में लिखिये

1. C₂H₅NH₂,C₆H₅NH₂,NH_3, C₆H₅CH₂ NH₂ तथा (C₂H₅)₂NH
2. C₂H₅NH₂, (C₂H₅)₂NH, (C₂H₅)₃N, C₆H₅NH₂
3. CH₃NH₂, (CH₃)₂NH, (CH₃)₃N, C₆H₅NH₂, C₆H₅CH₂NH₂

उत्तर

1. C₆H₅NH₂ < NH₃ < C₆H₅CH₂NH₂ < C₂H₅NH₂< (C₂H₅)₂NH
2. C₆H₅NH₂< C₂H₅NH₂ < (C₂H₅)₃N < (C₂H₅)₂NH
3. C₆H₅NH₂< C₆H₅CH₂NH₂ < (CH₃)₃N < CH₃NH₂< (CH₃)₂NH

प्रश्न 5.
निम्नलिखित अम्ल-क्षार अभिक्रिया को पूर्ण कीजिये तथा उत्पादों के नाम लिखिये

1. CH₃CH₂CH₂NH₂ + HCl →
2. (C₂H₅)N + HCI →

उत्तर

प्रश्न 6.
सोडियम कार्बोनेट विलयन की उपस्थिति में मेथिल आयोडाइड के आधिक्य द्वारा ऐनिलीन के ऐल्किली-करण में उत्पन्न होने वाले उत्पादों के लिये अभिक्रिया लिखिये।
उत्तर

प्रश्न 7.
एनिलीन की बेन्जॉयल क्लोराइड के साथ रासायनिक अभिक्रिया द्वारा उत्पन्न उत्पादों के नाम लिखिए।
उत्तर

प्रश्न 8.
अणुसूत्र C₃H₉N से प्राप्त विभिन्न समावयवों की संरचना लिखिये। उन समावयवों के IUPAC नाम लिखिए, जो नाइट्स अम्ल के साथ नाइट्रोजन गैस मुक्त करते हैं।
उत्तर
(a)C₃H₉N के चार संरचना समावयवी हैं, ये हैं-

प्रश्न 9.
निम्नलिखित परिवर्तन कीजिये”

1. 3-मेथिल एनिलीन से-3-नाइट्रोटॉलुईन
2. एनिलीन से 1, 3, 5 ट्राइब्रोमोबेंजीन।।

उत्तर

ऐमीन पाठ्य-पुस्तक प्रश्नोत्तर

प्रश्न 1.
निम्नलिखित यौगिकों को प्राथमिक, द्वितीयक व तृतीयक एमीनों में वर्गीकृत कीजिये तथा इनके IUPAC नाम लिखिये

1. (CH₃)₂CHNH₂
2. CH₃(CH2)₂NH₂
3. CH₃NHCH(CH₃)₂
4. (CH₃)₃CNH₂
5. C₆H₅NH-CH₃
6. (CH₃CH₂)₂NCH₃
7. m-BrC₆H₄NH₂

उत्तर

1. प्रोपेन-2-एमीन (1°)
2. प्रोपेन-1-एमीन (1°)
3. N-मेथिलप्रोपेन-2-एमीन (2°)
4. 2-मेथिल प्रोपेन-2-एमीन (3°)
5. N-मेथिलबेन्जेनामीन या N-मेथिलएनिलीन (2°)
6. N-एथिल-N-मेथिलऐथनामीन (3°)
7. 3-ब्रोमोबेन्जेनामीन या 3-ब्रोमोएनिलीन (1°)

प्रश्न 2.
निम्नलिखित युगलों के यौगिकों में विभेद के लिये एक रासायनिक परीक्षण दीजिये मेथिल एमीन एवं डाइमेथिल एमीन

1. द्वितीयक व तृतीयक एमीन
2. एथिल एमीन एवं ऐनिलीन
3. ऐनिलीन व बेन्जिलएमीन
4. एनिलीन व N-मेथिल एनिलीन।

उत्तर
1. कार्बिल एमीन परीक्षण द्वारा- मेथिलएमीन एक प्राथमिक एमीन है। अतः ये कार्बिल एमीन परीक्षण देंगे। इसके विपरीत डाइमेथिल एमीन एक द्वितीयक एमीन है, अतः ये परीक्षण नहीं देगा।

2. लिबरमैन नाइट्रोसोएमीन परीक्षण द्वारा- 2° एमीन HNO₂ (जो HCI तथा NaNO₂ की क्रिया द्वारा उत्पन्न होता है) के साथ क्रिया द्वारा पीले रंग का तैलीय N-नाइट्रोसोएमीन देता है। उदाहरण

N-नाइट्रोसोडाइएथिल एमीन फिनॉल तथा सान्द्र H₂SO₄ के साथ गर्म किये जाने पर हरा विलयन देता है जिसे जलीय NaOH से क्षारीय करने पर गहरे नीले रंग में तथा तनुकरण पर लाल रंग में बदलता है। तृतीयक एमीन में परीक्षण नहीं देता है।

3. ऐजोरंजक परीक्षण द्वारा-किसी भी प्राथमिक एरोमैटिक एमीन की क्रिया HNO₂(NaNO₂+ dil. HCI) से 273-278 K पर β-नेपथॉल के क्षारीय विलयन से क्रिया कराने पर तीव्र पीला, नारंगी या लाल रंग का रंजक बनाता है।

ऐलिफैटिक प्राथमिक एमीन इस दशा में तीव्रता से N, गैस के साथ प्राथमिक एल्कोहॉल बनाता है। अर्थात् विलयन रंगहीन रहता है।

4. एनिलीन [(iii) में देखिये] रंजक परीक्षण देती है। बेन्जाइल एमीन नाइट्रस अम्ल के साथ क्रिया करके बेन्जॉयल एल्कोहॉल तथा बुलबुले के रूप में N, गैस देती है।
C₆H₅CH₂NH₂ + HNO₂ → C₆H₅CH₂OH + N₂+ H₂O

5. ये कार्बिल एमीन परीक्षण द्वारा विभेदित की जाती है। एनिलीन प्राथमिक एमीन है इसलिये कार्बिल एमीन परीक्षण देती है। अर्थात् जब KOH के एल्कोहॉलिक विलयन CHCl₃ के साथ गर्म करने पर फेनिल आइसोसायनाइड की दुर्गंध देता है।

मेथिल एनिलीन (1° एमीन) नाइट्रस अम्ल के साथ क्रिया द्वारा नाइट्रोसोएमीन (पीला तैलीय द्रव) बनाता है जो कि कमरे के ताप पर स्थायी होता है। अतः ईथर में HCI तथा एल्कोहॉल के साथ क्रिया पर नाइट्रोसो (-NO) समूह पैरा स्थिति पर चला जाता है।

प्रश्न 3.
निम्नलिखित के कारण बताइये

1. ऐनिलीन का pK_a मेथिल ऐमीन की तुलना में अधिक होता है।
2. ऐथिल ऐमीन जल में विलेय है जबकि ऐनिलीन नहीं।
3. मेथिल ऐमीन फेरिक क्लोराइड के साथ जल में अभिक्रिया करने पर जलयोजित फेरिक ऑक्साइड का अवक्षेप देता है।
4. यद्यपि ऐमीनों समूह इलेक्ट्रॉनरागी प्रतिस्थापन अभिक्रियाओं में ऑर्थों एवं पैरा निर्देशक होता है फिर भी ऐनिलीन नाइट्रीकरण द्वारा यथेष्ट मात्रा में मेटानाइट्रो- ऐनिलीन देती है।
5. ऐनिलीन फ्रीडल-क्राफ्ट्स अभिक्रिया प्रदर्शित नहीं करती।
6. ऐरोमैटिक ऐमीनों के डाइऐजोनियम लवण ऐलि-फैटिक ऐमीनों से प्राप्त लवण से अधिक स्थायी होते हैं।
7. प्राथमिक ऐमीन के संश्लेषण में गैब्रियल थैलि-माइड संश्लेषण को प्राथमिकता दी जाती है।

उत्तर
1. एनिलीन में नाइट्रोजन के एकाकी इलेक्ट्रॉन युग्म बेंजीन रिंग पर विस्थापनीकृत होने से नाइट्रोजन पर इलेक्ट्रॉन घनत्व को कम करते हैं।
इसके विपरीत CH₃NH₂ में CH₃ समूह का + प्रभाव नाइट्रोजन पर इलेक्ट्रॉन घनत्व बढ़ाता है। इसलिये एनिलीन मेथिल ऐमीन से दुर्बल क्षार है। अतः एनिलीन का pK_a मान मेथिल एमीन से ज्यादा होता है।

2. अन्तराआण्विक हाइड्रोजन बंध के कारण एथिल ऐमीन पानी में घुलनशील होता है। एनिलीन में बड़ा जलविरोधी भाग (हाइड्रोफोबिक) हाइड्रोजन बंध के विस्तार को घटाता है। अतः एनिलीन जल में अघुलनशील होता है।

3. मेथिल ऐमीन जल से ज्यादा क्षारीय होता है तथा पानी से एक प्रोटॉन ग्रहण कर OH आयन मुक्त करता है।

ये OH आयन जल में उपस्थित Fe⁺³ आयन से संयुक्त होकर जलीयकृत फेरिक ऑक्साइड का भूरा अवक्षेप बनाता है।
FeCl₃ → Fe⁺³+3Cl^–
2Fe⁺³+ 6OH^– → 2Fe(OH)₃ या Fe₂O₃,.3H₂O
जलीय फेरिक ऑक्साइड (भूरा अवक्षेप)

4. प्रबल अम्लीय माध्यम (सान्द्र HNO₃/ सान्द्र H₂SO₄) में एनिलीन बहुतायत में प्रोटॉनीकृत होकर एनि-लीनियम आयन  बनाता है जो m-दिशात्मक व निष्क्रियात्मक समूह होता है जबकि एनिलीन का – NH₂ (एमीन) 0-, p-दिशात्मक तथा सक्रियात्मक समूह है। इसी कारण o-, p-व्युत्पन्न के साथ व्यापक मात्रा में m-व्युत्पन्न भी बनते हैं।

5. एनिलीन लुईस क्षार होता है, अतः लुईस अम्ल AICI₃ के साथ लवण बनाता है।

अतः एनिलीन के नाइट्रोजन पर धनावेश होने के कारण यह इलेक्ट्रोफिलिक प्रतिस्थापन के लिये प्रबल निष्क्रियात्मक समूह का कार्य करता है। इस कारण एनिलीन फ्रीडल-क्रॉफ्ट्स अभिक्रिया नहीं देता है।

6. एरोमैटिक एमीन के डाइएजोनियम लवण एलिफैटिक एमीन की तुलना में अधिक स्थायी होते हैं, क्योंकि इसमें धनावेश बेंजीन रिंग पर विस्थापनीकृत रहता है।

7. गेब्रियल थैलिमाइड अभिक्रिया शुद्ध प्राथमिक एमीन बिना 2° तथा 3° एमीन के मिलावट के देता है। इसलिये 1 एमीन संश्लेषण में इसे प्राथमिकता दी जाती है।

प्रश्न 4.
निम्नलिखित को क्रम में लिखिए
1. pK_b मान के घटते क्रम में-
C₂H₅NH₂, C₆H₅NHCH₃, (C₂H₅)₂NH एवं C₆H₅NH₂

2. क्षारीय प्राबल्य के घटते क्रम में –
C₆H₅NH₂, C₆H₅N(CH₃)₂, (C₂H₅)₂NH₂एवं CH₃ NH₃

3. क्षारीय प्राबल्य के बढ़ते क्रम में –
(क) ऐनिलीन, पैरा-नाइट्रोऐनिलीन एवं पैरा-टॉल्यु-डीन
(ख) C₆H₅NH₂, C₆H₅)NHCH₃ C₆H₅CH₂NH₂

4. गैस अवस्था में घटते हुए क्षारीय प्राबल्य के क्रम में-
C₂H₅NH₂, (C₂H₅)NH, (C₂H₅)₃N एवं NH₃

(v) क्वथनांक के बढ़ते क्रम में-
C₂H₅OH, (CH₃))₂NH, C₂H₅NH₂

(vi) जल में विलेयता के बढ़ते क्रम में
C₆H₅NH₂, (C₂H₅)NH, C₂H₅NH₂
उत्तर –
1. नाइट्रोजन परमाणु के एकाकी इलेक्ट्रॉन युग्म के बेंजीन रिंग पर विस्थापनीकरण के कारण C₆H₅NH₂, तथा C₆H₅NHCH₃, C₂H₅NH₂ तथा (C₂H₅)₂NH की तुलना में कम क्षारीय होंगे। इसी प्रकार

-CH₃ समूह के +I प्रभाव के कारण C₆H₅NHCH₃, C₆H₅NH₂ की तुलना में थोड़ा अधिक क्षारीय होगा।

C₂H₅NH₂ तथा (C₂H₅)₂NH में (C₂H₅)₂NH, C₂H₅NH₂ की तुलना में कम क्षारीय होगा। दो –
C₂H₅ समूह के +I प्रभाव के कारण होगा। सभी प्रभावों को मिलाकर इन चारों एमीन की घटती आपेक्षिक क्षारीय प्रबलता का क्रम होगा
(C₂H₅)NH > C₂H₅NH₂ > C,₆H₅NHCH₃> C₆H₅NH₂
चूंकि प्रबलतम क्षार का pK, मान कम होता है। अतः इनके PK. मान विपरीत क्रम में घटते हैं।
C₆H₅NH₂> C₆H₅NHCH₃ > C₆H₅NH₂> (C₆H₅)NH

2. उत्तर (i) के अनुसार एमीनों की आपेक्षिक क्षारीयता का घटता क्रम हैं
(C₂H₅)₂NH > C₂H₅NHCH₃ > C₅H₅NH₂
CH₃NH₂ तथा (C₂H₅)₂NH में से दो -C₂H₅ समूह के ज्यादा +I प्रभाव के कारण (C₂H₅)₂NH, CH₃NH₂ से अधिक क्षारीय होता है। अत: चारों एमीन की क्षारीय प्रबलता का घटता क्रम हैं
(C₂H₅)₂NH> CH₃NH₂ >C₆H₅N(CH₃)₂>C₆H₅NH₂

3. (क) इलेक्ट्रॉन- दान करने वाले समूह एमीन की क्षारीय प्रबलता को बढ़ाते हैं जबकि इलेक्ट्रॉन ग्रहण करने वाले (इलेक्ट्रॉन आकर्षी समूह) क्षारीय प्रबलता को घटाते हैं। अतः क्षारीयता का बढ़ता क्रम होगा
p- नाइट्रोएनिलीन < एनिलीन

(ख) C₆H₅NH₂ तथा C₆H₅NHCH₃ में N बेंजीन रिंग से सीधे जुड़ा होता है तथा N-परमाणु के एकाकी इलेक्ट्रॉन युग्म बेंजीन रिंग पर विस्थापनीकृत रहते हैं। अत: C₆H₅NH₂ तथा C₆H₅NHCH₃ दोनों C₆H₅CH₂NH₂से दुर्बल क्षार है। आगे-CH₃ समूह के +I प्रभाव के कारण C₆H₅NHCH₃, C₆H₅NH₂से प्रबल क्षार होता है। क्षारीय प्रबलता का बढ़ता क्रम है
C₆H₅NH₂ < C₆H₅NHCH₃ < C₆H₅CH₂NH₂

4. विलायक प्रभाव – गैस प्रावस्था में H-बंध के कारण संयुग्मी अम्लों का स्थायित्व का बढ़ना नहीं पाया जाता है। गैसीय प्रावस्था में क्षारीय प्रबलता मुख्यतः एल्किल समूहों के +I प्रभाव पर निर्भर करती है। अतः गैसीय प्रावस्था में क्षारीय प्रबलता का घटता क्रम है
(C₂H₅)N > (C₂H₅)₂)NH > C₂H₅NH₂> NH₃

5. चूँकि O की विद्युत्-ऋणात्मकता N से ज्यादा होती है, अतः एल्कोहॉल एमीन से प्रबल H-बंध बनाते हैं । इसके अलावा H-बंध का विस्तार N-परमाणु पर उपस्थित H-परमाणुओं की संख्या पर निर्भर करता है। अतः अन्तरा-आण्विक बल का क्रम होगा
C₂H₅OH > C₂H₅NH₂> (CH₃)₂NH
अतः दिये गये तीन यौगिकों के क्वथनांक का बढ़ता क्रम हैं
(CH₃)₂NH < C₂H₅NH₂< C₂H₅OH

6. विलेयता घटती है –

1. जलविरोधी हाइड्रोकार्बन भाग के आकार के बढ़ने के कारण एमीन का आण्विक भार बढ़ना।
2. N-परमाणु जो H-बंध से गुजरते हैं। उन पर उपस्थित H-परमाणुओं की संख्या का घटना।
   दिये गये यौगिकों में से उच्चतम (अधिकतम) आण्विक भार 93,C₆H₅NH₂ का इसके बाद (C₂H₅)₂NH का 73 होता है जबकि C₂H₅NH₂ का निम्नतम आण्विक भार 45 होता है। अतः विलेयता आण्विक भार घटने के साथ बढ़ती है। अतः
   C₆H₅NH₂ < (C₂H₅)₂NH₂ < C₂H₅NH₂

प्रश्न 5.
इन्हें आप कैसे परिवर्तित करेंगे

1. एथेनोइक अम्ल को मेथेनामीन में
2. हेक्सेननाइट्राइल को 1-ऐमीनोपेन्टेन में
3. मेथेनॉल को एथेनोइक अम्ल में ।
4. एथेनामीन को मेथेनामीन में
5. एथेनोइक अम्ल को प्रोपेनोइक अम्ल में
6. मेथेनामीन को ऐथेनामीन में
7. नाइट्रोमेथेन को डाइमेथिलऐमीन में
8. प्रोपेनोइक अम्ल को ऐथेनोइक अम्ल में ?

उत्तर

प्रश्न 6.
प्राथमिक, द्वितीयक एवं तृतीयक ऐमीनों की पहचान की विधि का वर्णन कीजिए। इन अभिक्रियाओं के रासायनिक समीकरण भी लिखिए।
उत्तर
हिंसबर्ग परीक्षण – यह प्राथमिक, द्वितीयक, तृतीयक एमीन में विभेद के लिये एक उत्तम परीक्षण है। एपीन की बेंजीन सल्फोनिल क्लोराइड (हिंसबर्ग अभिकर्मक) के साथ क्रिया जलीय पोटैशियम हाइड्रॉक्साइड विलयन की अधिकता में की जाती है।

प्रश्न 7.
निम्न पर लघु टिप्पणी लिखिए

1. कार्बिल ऐमीन अभिक्रिया
2. डाइऐजोटीकरण
3. हॉफमैन ब्रोमामाइड अभिक्रिया
4. युग्मन अभिक्रिया
5. अमोनी-अपघटन
6. ऐसीलिकरण
7. गैब्रियल थैलिमाइड संश्लेषण।

उत्तर
1. कार्बिल ऐमीन अभिक्रिया- जब प्राथमिक ऐमीन को क्लोरोफार्म तथा ऐल्कोहॉली कॉस्टिक क्षार के साथ गर्म किया जाता है, जो कार्बिल ऐमीन (आइसोसायनाइड) की अरुचिकर गन्ध आती है। यह अभिक्रिया केवल प्राथमिक ऐमीनों द्वारा ही सम्पन्न होती है, इसे कार्बिल ऐमीन परीक्षण कहते हैं।

2. डाइऐजोटीकरण- ऐनिलीन के हाइड्रोक्लोरिक अम्ल के विलयन को हिम मिश्रण द्वारा 5°C तक ठण्डा करके उसमें सोडियम नाइट्राइट का हिमशीत विलयन मिलाने पर बेंजीन डाइऐजोनियम क्लोराइड बनता है। इस प्रकार ऐमीन समूह (-NH₂) का डाइऐजो समूह (-N₂X) द्वारा विस्थापन को डाइऐजोटीकरण कहते हैं।

3. हॉफमैन ब्रोमामाइड अभिक्रिया- इस अभिक्रिया को हॉफमैन ब्रोमामाइड अभिक्रिया कहते हैं, क्योंकि क्रिया के दौरान बनने वाला एक उत्पाद ब्रोमामाइड है, इसे हॉफमैन पुनर्विन्यास भी कहते हैं, क्योंकि अभिक्रिया के एक पद में पुनर्विन्यास होता है। इसी अभिक्रिया को हॉफमैन डिग्रेडेशन भी कहते हैं क्योंकि अंतिम उत्पाद में कार्बन परमाणु कम हो जाता है।
जब कोई एमाइड क्षार की उपस्थिति में ब्रोमीन से अभिक्रिया करता है तो एक कार्बन परमाणु कम होकर प्राथमिक एमीन बनाता है

R-CONH₂+Br₂ +3NaOH →RNH₂ +2NaBr+ NaHCO₃ + H₂O
जैसे- एसीटामाइड से मेथिलामीन तथा बेंजामाइड से एनिलीन बनता है।

4. युग्मन अभिक्रिया-हिमताप पर जब एनिलीन की क्रिया बेंजीन डाइएजोनियम लवण से कराई जाती है तो एक पीला पदार्थ प्राप्त होता है, जिसे हल्का गर्म करने पर चमकदार नारंगी-लाल रंजक बनता है।

5. अमोनी-अपघटन (Ammonolysis)- यह वह क्रिया है जिसमें या तो एल्किल (या एरिल हैलाइड) के हैलोजन अणु में या एल्कोहॉल (या फिनॉल) के हाइड्रॉक्सिल समूह का विस्थापन एमीनों समूह के द्वारा होता है। इस क्रिया में एल्कोहॉलीय अमोनिया अभिकर्मक प्रयुक्त होता है। सामान्यतः प्राथमिक, द्वितीयक या तृतीयक एमीन बनते हैं।

6. एसीटिलीकरण – एलिफैटिक तथा एरोमैटिक प्राथमिक तथा द्वितीयक एमीन अम्ल क्लोराइड, ऐनहाइड्राइड तथा एस्टर के साथ नाभिकस्नेही प्रतिस्थापन अभिक्रिया देते हैं । इस अभिक्रिया में -NH₂ या> NH समूह की परमाणु एसिल समूह द्वारा प्रतिस्थापित होते हैं तथा इस अभिक्रिया को एसीटिलीकरण या एसीलीकरण कहते हैं।

अभिक्रिया एमीन से प्रबल क्षार की उपस्थिति में होती है, जैसे – पिरिडीन, जो बने हुए HCl को निष्कासित करके साम्यावस्था को दायीं तरफ विस्थापित करती है तथा एसीटिलीकरण द्वारा बना उत्पाद एमाइड कहलाता है।

7. गैब्रियल थैलिमाइड संश्लेषण-इस अभिक्रिया में थैलिमाइड KOH से क्रिया करके पोटैशियम थैलिमाइड बनाता है, जो ऐल्किल हैलाइड से अभिक्रिया कर N-ऐल्किल थैलिमाइड देता है, जिसके जल अपघटन से प्राथमिक ऐमीन प्राप्त होते हैं।

प्रश्न 8.
निम्न परिवर्तन निष्पादित कीजिए

1. नाइट्रोबेन्जीन से बेन्जोइक अम्ल
2. बेन्जीन से m-ब्रोमोफीनॉल
3. बेन्जोइक अम्ल से ऐनिलीन
4. ऐनिलीन से 2, 4, 6-ट्राइब्रोमोफ्लुओरोबेन्जीन
5. बेन्जिल क्लोराइड से 2-फेनिलएथेनामीन
6. क्लोरोबेन्जीन से p-क्लोरोऐनिलीन
7. ऐनिलीन से p-ब्रोमोऐनिलीन
8. बेन्जेनामाइड से टॉलूईन
9. ऐनिलीन से बेन्जॉइल ऐल्कोहॉल। NO,

उत्तर

प्रश्न 9.
निम्न अभिक्रियाओं में A, B तथा C की संरचना दीजिए –

उत्तर

प्रश्न 10.
एक ऐरोमैटिक यौगिक ‘A’ जलीय अमोनिया के साथ गर्म करने पर यौगिक ‘B’ बनाता है जो Br, एवं KOH के साथ गर्म करने पर अणु सूत्र C₆H₅N वाला यौगिक ‘C’ बनाता है। A, B एवं cयौगिकों की संरचना एवं इनके IUPAC नाम लिखिए।
उत्तर
यौगिक ‘B’ तथा ‘C’ की संरचनाएँ
1. चूँकि ‘C’, ‘B’ से बना है, उसकी Br₂ + KOH के साथ क्रिया द्वारा (i.e. हॉफमैन ब्रोमामाइड अभिक्रिया)। अत: ‘B’ एक एमाइड तथा ‘C’ एक एमीन होगा। अणुसूत्र C₆H₅NH₂ वाला ही एमीन (बेंजामीन या एनिलीन) होगा।

2. चूँकि ‘C’ एनिलीन है तथा इससे बनने वाले एमाइड बेन्जामाइड (C₆H₅CONH₂) होगा। अतः यौगिक ‘B’ बेन्जामाइड होगा।
‘B’ से ‘C’ में परिवर्तन का रासायनिक समीकरण है

यौगिक A की संरचना – चूँकि ‘A’ को जलीय अमोनिया के साथ गर्म करने पर बेंजामाइड बनाता है। अत: ‘A’ बेन्जोइक अम्ल होगा।

प्रश्न 11.
निम्नलिखित अभिक्रियाओं को पूर्ण कीजिए

1. C₆H₅NH₂ + CHCl₃ + KOH (ऐल्कोहॉली) →
2. C₂H₅N₂CI+ H₃PO₂ + H₂O →
3.  C₆H₅NH₂ + H₂SO₄ (सान्द्र) →
4.  C₆H₅N₂CI+C₂H₅OH →
5.  C₆H₅NH₂+ Br₂(aq) →
6.  C₆H₅NH₂+ (CH₃CO)₂O →

7.

उत्तर

प्रश्न 12.
ऐरोमैटिक प्राथमिक ऐमीन को गैब्रियल थैलिमाइड संश्लेषण से क्यों नहीं बनाया जा सकता?
उत्तर

चूँकि ऐरिल हैलाइड न्यूक्लियोफिलिक प्रतिस्थापन अभिक्रिया सरलता से नहीं करता है। इसलिये ऐरोमैटिक प्राथमिक एमीन गैब्रियल थैलिमाइड अभिक्रिया द्वारा नहीं बनाये जाते हैं।

प्रश्न 13.
ऐलिफैटिक एवं ऐरोमैटिक प्राथमिक ऐमीनों की नाइट्रस अम्ल से अभिक्रिया लिखिए।
उत्तर
एरोमैटिक प्राथमिक एमीन HNO₂ के साथ 273-278K पर क्रिया करके ऐरोमैटिक डाइएजोनियम लवण बनाते हैं

एनिलीन ऐलिफैटिक प्राथमिक एमीन HNO₂ के साथ 273-278 K पर भी क्रिया करके ऐलिफैटिक डाइएजोनियम लवण बनाते हैं। परन्तु ये कम ताप पर भी अस्थायी होते हैं। अतः सरलता ये विघटित होकर यौगिकों की मिश्रण जिसमें एल्किल क्लोराइड, एल्कीन तथा एल्कोहॉल होता है बनाते हैं जिनमें से एल्कोहॉल प्रमुखता से बनता है।

प्रश्न 14.
निम्नलिखित में प्रत्येक का संभावित कारण बताइए

1. समतुल्य अणु द्रव्यमान वाले ऐमीनों की अम्लता ऐल्कोहॉलों से कम होती है।
2. प्राथमिक ऐमीनों का क्वथनांक तृतीयक एमीनों से अधिक होता है।
3. ऐरोमैटिक ऐमीनों की तुलना में ऐलिफैटिक ऐमीनों प्रबल क्षारक होते हैं।

उत्तर
1. एमीन एक प्रोटॉन को त्यागकर एक ऐमाइल आयन बनाते हैं जबकि एल्कोहॉल एक प्रोटॉन त्यागकर एल्कॉक्-साइड आयन देते हैं

चूँकि ‘O’,N तथा से ज्यादा विद्युत्-ऋणात्मक होता है, इसलिये ऋण आवेश को  आयन की तुलना में ज्यादा सरलता से (अनुकूलतम) से ग्रहण किये रहता है।
दूसरे शब्दों में ,  से ज्यादा स्थायी होता है। अतः एल्कोहॉल एमीन से ज्यादा अम्लीय या एमीन एल्को-हॉल से कम अम्लीय होते हैं।

2. प्राथमिक एमीन (R – NH₂) पर दो हाइड्रोजन परमाणु N परमाणु पर होते हैं। अतः ये विस्तारित अन्तःआण्विक हाइड्रोजन बंध में भाग लेते हैं।

तृतीयक एमीन (RN) में हाइड्रोजन परमाणु, N परमाणु पर नहीं होता है, अतः इसमें H-बंध नहीं होता है। परिणामतः प्राथमिक एमीन का क्वथनांक संगत अणुभार वाले तृतीयक एमीन से ज्यादा होते हैं। उदाहरण
n-ब्यूटाइल एमीन का क्वथनांक (351K) तृतीयक ब्यूटाइल एमीन (b.p. 319 K) से ज्यादा उच्च होता है।

3. एरोमैटिक एमीन में नाइट्रोजन के एकाकी इलेक्ट्रॉन युग्म बेंजीन के साथ संयुग्मन में शामिल हो जाते हैं। जिससे नाइट्रोजन पर धनावेश आ जाता है तथा एकाकी इलेक्ट्रॉन युग्म नाइट्रोजन पर दान करने के लिये उपलब्ध नहीं होते हैं। जबकि ऐलिफैटिक एमीन में मेथिल समूह पर +I प्रभाव होने से नाइट्रोजन पर इलेक्ट्रॉन घनत्व बढ़ जाता है इसलिये ये प्रबल क्षारक होते हैं।

ऐमीन अन्य महत्वपूर्ण प्रश्नोत्तर

ऐमीन वस्तुनिष्ठ प्रश्न

1. सही विकल्प चुनकर लिखिए

प्रश्न 1.
एनिलीन ठण्डे में नाइट्रस अम्ल (NaNO, + HCI) में अभिकृत करने पर देती है-
(a) C₆H₅OH
(b) C₆H₅N₂Cl
(c) C₆H₅NO₂
(d) C₆H₅Cl.
उत्तर
(b) C₆H₅N₂Cl

प्रश्न 2.
एक नाइट्रोजनयुक्त कार्बनिक यौगिक, क्लोरोफार्म व ऐल्कोहॉली KOH के साथ गर्म करने पर अति दुर्गन्धयुक्त वाष्प देता है। यह यौगिक हो सकता है-
(a) नाइट्रो बेंजीन
(b) बेंजेन्एमाइड
(c) N – N डाइमेथिल एनिलीन
(d) एनिलीन।
उत्तर
(d) एनिलीन।

प्रश्न 3.
एथिल एमीन नाइट्रस अम्ल से क्रिया करके बनाता है-
(a) अमोनिया
(b) नाइट्रस ऑक्साइड
(c) एथेन
(d) नाइट्रोजन ।
उत्तर
(d) नाइट्रोजन ।

प्रश्न 4.
कम तापक्रम पर नाइट्रस अम्ल प्रतिक्रिया स्वरूप तेलीय नाइट्रोसैमीन देने वाली यौगिक है-
(a) मेथिल एमीन
(b) डाइमेथिल एमीन
(c) ट्राइमेथिल एमीन
(d) ट्राइएथिल एमीन।
उत्तर
(b) डाइमेथिल एमीन

प्रश्न 5.
निम्नलिखित में से कौन सर्वाधिक क्षारीय है-
(a) C₆H₅NH₂
(b) (CH₃)₂ NH
(C) (CH₃)₃N
(d) NH₃.
उत्तर
(b) (CH₃)₂ NH

प्रश्न 6.
बेंजीन डाइएजोनियम क्लोराइड के जल-अपघटन से प्राप्त होता है
(a) क्लोरोबेंजीन
(b) फीनॉल
(c) ऐल्कोहॉल
(d) बेंजीन।
उत्तर
(b) फीनॉल

प्रश्न 7.
अभिक्रिया C₆H₅CHO + C₆H₅NH₃ →C₆H₅N=CHC₆H₅+H₂0 में C₆H₅N =CHC₆H₅ कहलाता है-
(a) एल्डॉल
(b) शिफ अभिकर्मक
(c) शिफ बेस
(d बेनेडिक्ट अभिकर्मक।
उत्तर
(c) शिफ बेस

प्रश्न 8.
नाइट्रो बेंजीन निम्न में से किसके द्वारा N- फेनिल हाइड्रॉक्सिल ऐमीन देता है
(a) Sn/HCI
(b) C₆H₅CH₂NH-CH₃
(c) Zn / NaOH
(d) Zn/ NH₄Cl.
उत्तर
(c) Zn / NaOH

प्रश्न 9.
कार्बिल एमीन अभिक्रिया ऐल्कोहॉली KOH को इनके मिश्रण के साथ गर्म करके की जाती
(a) क्लोरोफार्म और रजत पूर्ण
(b) ट्राइहैलोजनीकृत मेथेन तथा एक प्राथमिक एमीन
(c) एल्किल हैलाइड और प्राथमिक एमीन
(d) एक एल्किल सायनाइड तथा प्राथमिक एमीन।
उत्तर
(b) ट्राइहैलोजनीकृत मेथेन तथा एक प्राथमिक एमीन

प्रश्न 10.
सन् 1984 में भोपाल त्रासदी में रिसने वाली गैस थी|
(a)
(b)CH₃-C=N=S
(c) CHCl₃
(d) C₆H₅COCl.
उत्तर
(a)

प्रश्न 11.
मीरबेन का तेल है
(a) ऐनिलीन
(b) नाइट्रोबेन्जीन
(c) p-नाइट्रोऐनिलीन
(d) p-ऐमीनो ऐजोबेन्जीन।
उत्तर
(b) नाइट्रोबेन्जीन

प्रश्न 12.
मस्टर्ड तेल अभिक्रिया का उत्पाद है
(a) ऐल्किल आइसो थायोसायनेट
(b) डाइथायो कार्बेमाइड
(c) डाइथायो एथिल ऐसीटेट
(d) p-नाइट्रो फीनॉल।
उत्तर
(c) डाइथायो एथिल ऐसीटेट

प्रश्न 13.
ऐनिलीन का शुद्धिकरण करते हैं
(a) वाष्प आसवन से
(b) निर्वात आसवन से
(c) साधारण आसवन से
(d) विलायक निष्कर्षण से।
उत्तर
(a) वाष्प आसवन से

प्रश्न 14.
जो ऐमीन ऐसीटिल क्लोराइड से क्रिया नहीं करेगा, वह है
(a) CH₃NH₂
(b) (CH₃)₂NH
(c) (CH₃)₂N
(d) इनमें से कोई नहीं।
उत्तर
(a) CH₃NH₂

प्रश्न 15.
अभिक्रिया है
(a) गाटरमैन
(b) सेण्डमेयर
(c) वुर्ट्ज
(d) फ्रेंकलेंड।
उत्तर
(b) सेण्डमेयर

 

2. रिक्त स्थानों की पूर्ति कीजिए

1. एरोमैटिक एमीन जल में ………… होते हैं।
2. NaOH की उपस्थिति में एमीन का बेंजाइलीकरण किया जाता है यह ………… अभिक्रिया __कहलाती है।
3. नाइट्रस अम्ल से क्रिया करके 1° एमीन ऐल्कोहॉल 2° एमीन ……….. बनाते हैं।
4. 2⁰ एमीन की नाइट्स अम्ल से क्रिया …………को प्रदर्शित करती है।
5. एनिलीन सान्द्र सल्फ्यूरिक अम्ल के साथ ….. सल्फोनीकरण करने पर …….. बनता है।
6. धातु (संक्रमण धातुएँ) आयनों के साथ एमीन उपसहसंयोजकता ……… स्थापित कर ….. बनाते हैं।
7. अपचयन द्वारा सायनाइड ………… तथा आइसो सायनाइड ………… बनाते हैं।
8. बेंजोइक अम्ल, हाइड्रेजोइक अम्ल से क्रिया करके ………… बनाता है।
9. सभी ऐलीफैटिक एमीन अमोनिया से अधिक ……….. प्रकृति होते हैं।
10. 1° और 2° एमीन ग्रिगनार्ड अभिकर्मक से क्रिया करके ……….बनाते हैं।
11. एमीन की क्षारीय प्रवृत्ति नाइट्रोजन परमाणु पर …… के कारण होती है।
12. प्राथमिक एमीन को ……… व……. के साथ गर्म करने पर एल्किल आइसोसाइनाइड प्राप्त होता है।
13. C₆H₅ COOH+ ………→ +C₆H₆-NH2 + N₂ + CO₂
14. T.N.T तथा अमोनियम नाइट्रेट का मिश्रण …………….. कहलाता है।
15. एनिलीन की अभिक्रिया 0°C ताप या HCL तथा NaNO₂ से कराने पर बेंजीन डाई-एजोनियम क्लोराइड बनाता है। यह …………. अभिक्रिया कहलाती है।
16. एथिल एमीन अमोनिया की तुलना में ………….. क्षारीय होता है।
17. ट्राईनाइट्रो टालुईन एक ………. यौगिक है।
18. एल्किल आइसोसायनाइड को 250° पर गर्म करने पर …….. बनता है।

उत्तर

1. अविलेय
2. शॉटन-बामन
3. नाइट्रोसैमीन
4. लीबरमान नाइट्रोसो परीक्षण
5. सल्फोनिलिक अम्ल
6. संकुल आयन
7. प्राथमिक एमीन, द्वितीयक एमीन
8. एनिलीन
9. क्षारीय
10. एल्केन
11. एकांकी CIयुग्म
12. क्लोरोफार्म व कास्टिक क्षार
13. N₃H
14. एमेटॉल
15. डाइएजोटाइजेशन
16. प्रबल
17. विस्फोटक
18. एल्किल सायनाइड ।

3. उचित सम्बन्ध जोडिएI

उत्तर

1. (e)
2. (d)
3. (b)
4. (c)
5. (a)
6. (g)
7. (1).

उत्तर

1. (e)
2. (d)
3. (a)
4. (c)
5. (b).

उत्तर

1. (d)
2. (e)
3. (a)
4. (c)
5. (1)
6. (b).

4. एक शब्द / वाक्य में उत्तर दीजिए

1. हवा में खुला छोड़ने पर एनिलीन काला भूरा पड़ जाता है।
2. तृतीयक एमीन का एसीटिलीकरण नहीं होता क्यों ?
3. C₃H₇N का कौन-सा समावयवी सबसे कम क्षारीय तथा सबसे कम क्वथनांक वाला होगा।
4. कौन-सा एमीन डाइएजोटीकरण क्रिया देता है।
5. प्राथमिक ऐरोमैटिक एमीन को ट्राइक्लोरो मेथेन और ऐल्कोहॉली कास्टिक पोटाश के साथ गर्म करने पर प्राप्त होता है।
6. द्वितीयक एमीन की पहचान की जा सकती है।
7. नाइट्रीकरण मिश्रण किसे कहते हैं।
8. नाइट्रोबेन्जीन कहलाता है।
9. अभिक्रिया का नाम है। 0-5°C
10. प्राथमिक नाइट्रोऐल्केन नाइट्रस अम्ल से क्रिया करके कौन-सा यौगिक बनाते हैं ?
11. ऐमीन की प्रकृति लिखिए।
12.  प्राथमिक, द्वितीयक तथा तृतीयक एमीन के पृथक्करण हेतु प्रयुक्त अभिकर्मक है।
13. 11° व 2° एमीन फास्जीन से क्रिया करके क्या बनाते हैं।
14. उक्त अभिक्रिया का नाम लिखिए।
15. एमीनों की CHCl₃ के साथ अभिक्रिया कराने पर क्या प्राप्त होता है।
16. एमीनों का उपयोग कार्बनिक संश्लेषण में किस रूप में प्रयोग होता है।
17. KMnO₄ की उपस्थिति में ऑक्सीकरण करने पर एथिल ऐमीन क्या बनाता है।
18. C₆H₅NH₂ के जलीय विलयन में Br₂ जल मिलाने पर किसके अवक्षेप मिलते हैं।
19. सायनाइड का Pt या Ni की उपस्थिति में अपचयन करने पर कौन-सा एमीन बनता है।
20. में x उत्पाद का सूत्र लिखिए।
21. अभिक्रिया का नाम लिखिये।
22. मेथिल आइसो साइनाइड बनाने की क्रिया का क्या नाम है ?

उत्तर-

1. एनिलीन वायु द्वारा ऑक्सीकृत हो जाता है
2. सक्रिय H परमाणु नहीं होता
3. तृतीयक एमीन
4. सभी प्राथमिक ऐरोमैटिक एमीन
5. फेनिल आइसो सायनाइड
6. लीबरमान परीक्षण से
7. सान्द्र HNO₃ तथा सान्द्र H₂SO₄
8. मीरबेन का तेल
9. डाइ ऐजोटाइजेशन
10. नाइट्रोलिक अम्ल
11. क्षारीय
12. हिन्सबर्ग अभिकर्मक
13. प्रतिस्थापित यूरिया
14. कार्बिल एमीन अभिक्रिया
15. एल्किल आइसोसायनायड
16. अभिकर्मक एल्केन
17. ऐल्डिहाइड
18. सममित ट्राइब्रोमोंएनीलीन
19. 1° एमीन
20. C₆H₅NH₂, (एनिलीन)
21. श्मिट अभिक्रिया
22. कार्बिल एमीन अभिक्रिया।

ऐमीन लघु उत्तरीय प्रश्न

प्रश्न 1.
ऐनिलीन जल में अविलेय है, लेकिन HCI में विलेयशील है, क्यों?
उत्तर
ऐनिलीन की क्षारीय प्रकृति के कारण यह HCI जैसे प्रबल अम्लों के साथ विलेयशील लवण बनाती है जबकि जल के साथ ऐसा लवण नहीं बनता। अत: यह HCI में विलेय एवं जल में अविलेय है।

प्रश्न 2.
शॉटन-बॉमन अभिक्रिया पर संक्षिप्त टिप्पणी लिखिये।
उत्तर
शॉटन-बॉमन अभिक्रिया (Schotten-Buamann Reaction)-किसी ऐरोमैटिक ऐमीन की बेन्जॉयल क्लोराइड के साथ बेन्जॉयलीकरण की क्रिया को शॉटन-बॉमन अभिक्रिया कहते हैं।

प्रश्न 3.

1. ऐल्किल सायनाइडों के क्वथनांक लगभग समान अणुभार वाले ऐल्किल हैलाइडों की तुलना में अधिक होते हैं, क्यों?
2. आइसोसायनाइड यौगिकों में अपने समावयवी सायनाइड यौमिकों की अपेक्षा क्वथनांक एवं गलनांक कम क्यों होते हैं ?

उत्तर
1. सायनाइड समूह  ध्रुवीय होता है। अतः ऐल्किल सायनाइडों का द्विध्रुव आघूर्ण उच्च होता है, जिसके कारण इनके मध्य अन्तराण्विक आकर्षण बल उच्च होता है, फलस्वरूप ऐल्किल सायनाइडों का क्वथनांक लगभग समान अणुभार वाले ऐल्किल हैलाइडों से उच्च होता है।

2. आइसोसायनाइड यौगिक अपने समावयवी सायनाइडों की अपेक्षा कम ध्रुवीय होते हैं। अतः क्वथनांक एवं गलनांक भी संगत सायनाइड की अपेक्षा कम होते हैं।

प्रश्न 4.
समीकरणों को पूर्ण कीजिए
(a) C₂H₅I+H₂NC₂H₅ →
(b) CH₃NH₂ + (NaNO₂ + HCI) →
उत्तर
(a) सभी ऐमीन एल्किल हैलाइड (जैसे- C₂H₅I) से क्रिया करके चतुष्क (quatermary) अमोनियम लवण बनाते हैं। यह क्रिया ऐल्किलीकरण (alkylation) कहलाती है।

(b) CH₃NH₂ +OHNO →CH₃OH + N₂ + H₃O
NaNO₂ + HCI से नाइट्रस अम्ल (OHNO) प्राप्त होता है।

प्रश्न 5.
एथिल ऐमीन अमोनिया की अपेक्षा अधिक क्षारीय होता है, क्यों?
उत्तर
मेथिल ऐमीन या एथिल ऐमीन का वियोजन स्थिरांक K _b = 4.5×10-⁴ है, जबकि अमोनिया का वियोजन स्थिरांक 1.8×10-⁵है। अतः स्पष्ट है कि C₂H₅NH₂अमोनिया की तुलना में अधिक क्षारीय है। ऐथिल ऐमीन में एथिल समूह के + I प्रेरणिक प्रभाव के कारण नाइट्रोजन परमाणु पर एकाकी इलेक्ट्रॉन युग्म की उपलब्धता बढ़ जाती है और वे प्रोटॉन को अपेक्षाकृत और अधिक शीघ्रता से ग्रहण कर लेते हैं । इसलिए एथिल ऐमीन अमोनिया की अपेक्षा अधिक क्षारीय होता है।

प्रश्न 6.
संक्षिप्त टिप्पणी लिखिए

1. श्मिट अभिक्रिया,
2. मस्टर्ड ऑयल अभिक्रिया।

उत्तर
1. श्मिट अभिक्रिया- जब CHCI₃ या C₆H₆ में विलेय हाइड्रोजोइक अम्ल की मोनोकार्बोक्सिलिक .. अम्ल पर

2. मस्टर्ड ऑयल अभिक्रिया-ऐलिफैटिक प्राथमिक ऐमीन को -CS₂ तथा HgCI₂ के साथ गर्म करने पर सरसों के तेल जैसी गन्धयुक्त मेथिल आइसोथायोसायनेट बनता है। इसलिए इस अभिक्रिया को मस्टर्ड ऑयल अभिक्रिया कहते हैं।

प्रश्न 7.
प्राथमिक, द्वितीयक एवं तृतीयक एमीन का हिन्सबर्ग परीक्षण लिखिए।
उत्तर
हिन्सबर्ग परीक्षण-यह परीक्षण प्राथमिक, द्वितीयक एवं तृतीयक एमीन में विभेद करता है। इस परीक्षण में क्षार की अधिकता में एमीन को बेंजीन सल्फोनिल क्लोराइड (हिन्सबर्ग अभिकर्मक) के साथ गर्म करने पर विभिन्न एमीन अलग-अलग अवलोकन प्रदर्शित करते हैं।

1. प्राथमिक एमीन- सल्फोनैमाइड बनाते हैं जो KOH में विलेय है।

2. द्वितीयक एमीन- ये भी सल्फोनैमाइड बनाते हैं जो KOH में अविलेय है।

3. तृतीयक एमीन- ये कोई अभिक्रिया नहीं देते।।
C₆H₅SO₂Cl+R₃N → कोई अभिक्रिया नहीं।

प्रश्न 8.
ऐल्किल नाइट्राइट और नाइट्रो ऐल्केन में क्या अन्तर है ?
उत्तर
नाइट्रस अम्ल दो समावयवी रूपों में पाया जाता है।

अतः नाइट्रस अम्ल के दो ऐल्किल व्युत्पन्न बनते हैं।

अतः स्पष्ट है कि नाइट्रोऐल्केन में ऐल्किल मूलक नाइट्रोजन परमाणु से जुड़ा होता है, जबकि ऐल्किल . नाइट्राइट में ऐल्किल मूलक ऑक्सीजन परमाणु से जुड़ा होता है। ऐल्किल नाइट्राइट एस्टर है, जबकि नाइट्रो ऐल्केन पैराफिन का व्युत्पन्न है।

प्रश्न 9.
निम्नलिखित परिवर्तनों के केवल समीकरण लिखिए।

1. मेथिल सायनाइड का C₂H₅ NH₂ में परिवर्तन।
2. C₆H₅NH₂ का क्लोरोबेंजीन में परिवर्तन।

उत्तर

प्रश्न 10.
प्राथमिक, द्वितीयक और तृतीयक नाइट्रोऐल्केन में विभेद स्पष्ट करने की विधि का वर्णन कीजिए।
उत्तर
प्राथमिक, द्वितीयक और तृतीयक नाइट्रोऐल्केन में नाइट्रस अम्ल की क्रिया द्वारा अन्तर स्पष्ट कर सकते हैं।

1. प्राथमिक नाइट्रोऐल्केन नाइट्रस अम्ल से अभिक्रिया कर नाइट्रोलिक अम्ल बनाते हैं, जो क्षार के साथ लाल रंग उत्पन्न करते हैं ।

2. द्वितीयक नाइट्रो यौगिक नाइट्रस अम्ल के साथ क्रिस्टलीय स्यूडोनाइट्रोल (Pseudonitrols) देते हैं, जो क्षार में घुलकर नीला रंग उत्पन्न करते हैं, किन्तु लवण निर्माण नहीं होता ।

3. तृतीयक नाइट्रोऐल्केन नाइट्रस अम्ल से अभिक्रिया नहीं करते, क्योंकि α – हाइड्रोजन परमाणु नहीं होता ।

प्रश्न 11.
एथिल ऐमीन तथा ऐनिलीन में अन्तर स्पष्ट कीजिए।
उत्तर
एथिल ऐमीन तथा ऐनिलीन में अन्तर –

प्रश्न 12.
एथिल नाइट्राइट और नाइट्रो एथेन में अन्तर के कोई चार बिन्दु लिखिए।
उत्तर
नाइट्रो एथेन और एथिल नाइट्राइट में अन्तर
1. संरचना-
2. क्वथनांक- नाइट्रो एथेन का क्वथनांक एथिल नाइट्रेट से उच्च होता है।
3. अपचयन- नाइट्रो एथेन प्राथमिक एमीन तथा एथिल नाइट्राइट अमोनिया बनाता है

4. जल अपघटन-नाइट्रो एथेन NaOH के साथ ऐल्कोहॉल नहीं बनाता जबकि एथिल नाइट्राइट NaOH के साथ ऐल्कोहॉल बनाता है|
C₂H₅-O-N= O+NaOH→C₂H₅OH+NaNO₂.

प्रश्न 13.
मेण्डियस अभिक्रिया क्या है ?
उत्तर
ऐल्किल सायनाइड (RCN) का अपचयन सोडियम तथा ऐल्कोहॉल द्वारा करने पर प्राथमिक ऐमीन प्राप्त होता है । जैसे- मेथिल सायनाइड के अपचयन से एथिल ऐमीन बनता है । यह अभिक्रिया मेण्डियस अभिक्रिया कहलाती है ।

प्रश्न 14.
कैसे प्राप्त करेंगे
(a) मेथिल सायनाइड से एथिल ऐमीन
(b) ऐसीटामाइड से मेथिल ऐमीन ।
(c) एथिल ऐल्कोहॉल से एथिल ऐमीन
(d) मेथिल ऐमीन से एथिल ऐमीन ।
उत्तर

प्रश्न 15.
सायनाइड और आइसोसायनाइड के बीच कोई चार अन्तर लिखिये । अथवा एथिल सायनाइड और एथिल आइसोसायनाइड में अन्तर लिखिये ।
उत्तर
एथिल सायनाइड और एथिल आइसोसायनाइड में अन्तर –

प्रश्न 16.
एथिल ऐमीन किस प्रकार क्रिया करता है
(a) HNO₂ से,
(b) CH₃COCI से
(c) CS₂ से ।
उत्तर
(a) C₂H₅NH₂ + OHNO → C₂H₅OH + N₂ + H₂O

(b)

(c)

प्रश्न 17.
एथिल ऐमीन, ऐनिलीन से अधिक क्षारीय है, क्यों? अथवा ऐनिलीन, एथिल ऐमीन से कम क्षारीय होता है, क्यों?
उत्तर
ऐनिलीन एथिल ऐमीन की अपेक्षा कम क्षारीय होता है, क्योंकि बेंजीन नाभिक में अनुनाद के कारण नाइट्रोजन परमाणु का एकाकी इलेक्ट्रॉन युग्म नाभिक की ओर आकर्षित होकर समस्त रिंग में विस्थापित हो जाता है।

इस कारण यह इलेक्ट्रॉन युग्म एथिल ऐमीन के इलेक्ट्रॉन युग्म की अपेक्षा कठिनाई से त्यागा जाता है, जिससे ऐनिलीन का क्षारीय गुण अपेक्षाकृत कम हो जाता है । ऐनिलीन में इलेक्ट्रॉनों का विस्थापन निम्नलिखित प्रकार से प्रदर्शित किया जा सकता हैr

प्रश्न 18.
ऐमीनों के क्वथनांक संगत आण्विक द्रव्यमान के हाइड्रोकार्बनों की अपेक्षा उच्च होते हैं; परन्तु संगत ऐल्कोहॉलों एवं कार्बोक्सिलिक अम्लों से निम्न होते हैं । इस कथन का स्पष्टीकरण दीजिए ।
उत्तर
प्राथमिक ऐमीन ध्रुवीय होते हैं तथा इनमें द्विध्रुवीय  बन्ध उपस्थित होते हैं, जिससे ऐमीन में हाइड्रोजन बन्ध द्वारा अणुओं का संगुणन हो जाता है । इसी कारण इनका क्वथनांक समतुल्य अणुभार वाले ऐल्केन से अधिक होता है।

नाइट्रोजन की विद्युत्ऋणता का मान ऑक्सीजन से कम होने के कारण ऐल्कोहॉल एवं कार्बोक्सिलिक अम्लों में प्रबल H-बन्ध द्वारा संगुणन हो जाता है, जबकि ऐमीनों में दुर्बल H-बन्ध द्वारा संगुणन होता है । इसलिये ऐमीनों का क्वथनांक एवं गलनांक संगत ऐल्कोहॉलों एवं कार्बोक्सिलिक अम्लों से निम्न होता है।

प्रश्न 19.
ऐनिलीन के नाइट्रीकरण को स्पष्ट कीजिए।
उत्तर
ऐनिलीन का सीधा नाइट्रीकरण सम्भव नहीं है, क्योंकि -NH₂ समूह HNO₃ द्वारा ऑक्सीकृत हो जाता है, परन्तु नियंत्रित परिस्थितियों में नाइट्रीकरण कराने पर o- वp- के स्थान पर m-नाइट्रो व्युत्पन्न बनता है। अम्लीय माध्यम में – NH₂ समूह का प्रोटोनीकरण हो जाने के कारण बने —N⁺ H₃ समूह की इलेक्ट्रॉन आकर्षित करने की प्रवृत्ति बढ़ जाती है, जिससे ऐनिलीन o- वp-निर्देशक के स्थान पर m-निर्देशक की तरह कार्य करने लगता है ।

प्रश्न 20.
ऐनिलीन के नाइट्रीकरण से पूर्व उसका ऐसीटिलीकरण क्यों किया जाता है ? आवश्यक समीकरण भी दीजिए।

उत्तर
एनिलीन का सीधा नाइट्रीकरण सम्भव नहीं है, क्योंकि ऐनिलीन का ऐमीनो समूह नाइट्रिक अम्ल से ऑक्सीकृत हो जाता है । ऐनिलीन का नाइट्रीकरण करने के लिए पहले -NH, समूह को ऐसीटिलीकरण द्वारा सुरक्षित करते हैं। फिर नाइट्रीकरण करते हैं।

प्रश्न 21.
कैसे प्राप्त करेंगे केवल समीकरण लिखिए
(a) एथिल ऐमीन से मेथिल ऐमीन
(b) ऐनिलीन से फीनॉल
(c) मेथिल ऐमीन से एथिल ऐमीन ।
उत्तर

प्रश्न 22.
निम्न को समझाइए-
(a) ऐल्किल हैलाइड के अमोनी अपघटन से शुद्ध ऐमीन बनना कठिन है ।
(b) मेथिल ऐमीन जलं में FeCl, से क्रिया करके फेरिक हाइड्रॉक्साइड का अवक्षेप देता है ।
(c) AgCI मेथिल ऐमीन में विलेय है।
उत्तर
(a) ऐल्किल हैलाइड के अमोनीकरण से प्राथमिक, द्वितीयक एवं तृतीयक ऐमीनों का मिश्रण प्राप्त होता है।

इन ऐमीनों का पृथक्करण बहुत कठिन है, इस कारण ऐल्किल हैलाइड के अमोनी अपघटन से शुद्ध ऐमीन बनना कठिन है।

(b) मेथिल ऐमीन जल में OH^– आयन देता है, जो FeCl₃ से निम्न प्रकार क्रिया करके Fe(OH)₃ का अवक्षेप देता है।

(c) मेथिल ऐमीन AgCl के साथ एक विलेय संकुल बनाता है और इस प्रकार AgCl मेथिल ऐमीन में विलेय हो जाता है।

ऐमीन दीर्घ उत्तरीय प्रश्न

प्रश्न 1.
नाइट्रोबेंजीन के अम्लीय, उदासीन एवं क्षारीय माध्यम में अपचयन अभिक्रिया लिखिये।
उत्तर
(a) अम्लीय माध्यम में अपचयन-नाइट्रोबेंजीन अम्लीय माध्यम में (Sn + HCI, Zn + HCI या SnCl₂+ HCI) अपचयित होकर ऐनिलीन बनाता है।

(b) उदासीन माध्यम में अपचयन-ऐल्युमिनियम मरकरी युग्म या जिंक रज तथा अमोनियम क्लोराइड के साथ अपचयित होकर फेनिल हाइड्रॉक्सिल ऐमीन बनाता है।

(c) क्षारीय माध्यम में अपचयन–
1. क्षारीय सोडियम आर्सेनाइट द्वारा अपचयन करने पर ऐजॉक्सीबेंजीन बनता है।

2. CH₃ OH में बने Zn रज व NaOHविलयन द्वारा अपचयन करने पर ऐजोबेंजीन बनता है।

3. जिंक रज व कॉस्टिक सोडा द्वारा अपचयन करने पर हाइड्रोऐजोबेंजीन बनता है ।
2C₆H₅NO₂+10[H] →C₆H₅NH-NH-C₆H₅+4H₂O

प्रश्न 2.
आप ऐनिलीन से निम्नलिखित कैसे प्राप्त करेंगे? केवल समीकरण दीजिए।
(a) फीनॉल
(b) मेथेन
(c) ट्राइब्रोमो ऐनिलीन
(d) फेनिल आइसोसायनाइड ।
उत्तर
(a) फीनॉल

(b) मेथेन

(c) ट्राइबोमो ऐनिलीन

(d) फेनिल आइसोसायनाइड-

प्रश्न 3.
एक कार्बनिक यौगिक
(A) जिसका अणुसूत्र C,HO,N है, अपचयन पर
(B) यौगिक देता है, जो HNO, से क्रिया करके यौगिक
(C) बनाता है । यौगिक (B) क्लोरोफॉर्म और ऐल्कोहॉलिक KOH के साथ दुर्गन्धयुक्त यौगिक
(D) बनाता है, जो अपचयन पर यौगिक
(E) ऐमीन बनाता है ।आप यौगिक (A), (B), (C), (D) तथा
(E) के क्या सूत्र निरूपित करेंगे ? क्रियाएँ समझाइये ।
उत्तर

प्रश्न 4.
निम्नलिखित को कैसे प्राप्त करेंगे”

1. ऐनिलीन से सल्फैनिलिक अम्ल
2. ऐनिलीन से p-ऐमीनो ऐजो बेंजीन

उत्तर

प्रश्न 5.
क्या होता है, जब
(a) अमोनियम ऐसीटेट की ऐलुमिना से 500°C पर क्रिया कराते हैं।
(b) मेथिल सायनाइड का क्षारीय जल-अपघटन कराते हैं।
(c) बेंजेमाइड की P₂O₂ से क्रिया कराते हैं।
(d) Ni की उपस्थिति में फेनिल आइसोसायनाइड पर H, गैस प्रवाहित करते हैं।
(e) मेथिल आइसोसायनाइड को 250°C पर गर्म करते हैं।
उत्तर

प्रश्न 6.

1. नाइट्रोऐल्केन से प्राथमिक ऐमीन कैसे प्राप्त करेंगे ? समीकरण दीजिए।
2. प्राथमिक ऐमीन से प्राथमिक ऐल्कोहॉल कैसे प्राप्त किया जाता है ? समीकरण दीजिए।
3. N-प्रोपिल ऐमीन और आइसोप्रोपिल ऐमीन में कौन-सा अधिक क्षारीय होगा?

उत्तर
1. नाइट्रोऐल्केन का LiAIH₄ द्वारा या Ni या Pt की उपस्थिति में H₂ द्वारा अपचयन करने से प्राथमिक ऐमीन बनते हैं।

2. प्राथमिक ऐलिफैटिक ऐमीन नाइट्रस अम्ल से अभिक्रिया करके प्राथमिक ऐल्कोहॉल बनाते हैं।
C₂H₅NH₂+ HONO→C₂H₅OH+N₂+H₂O

3. नॉर्मल प्रोपिल ऐमीन अधिक क्षारीय होगा।

प्रश्न 7.
निम्नलिखित को कैसे प्राप्त करेंगे (केवल समीकरण दीजिए)
(a) नाइट्रोएथेन से एथिल ऐमीन
(b) नाइट्रोऐथेन से N-एथिल हाइड्रॉक्सिल ऐमीन
(c) नाइट्रोमेथेन से क्लोरोपिक्रिन
(d) बेंजीन डाइऐजोनियम क्लोराइड से नाइट्रोबेंजीन
(e) नाइट्रोबेंजीन से ट्राइनाइट्रोबेंजीन (T.N.B.) ।
उत्तर

प्रश्न 8.
एथिल ऐमीन बनाने की प्रयोगशाला विधिका निम्न बिन्दुओं के आधार पर वर्णन कीजिए(a) विधि, (b) अभिक्रिया का समीकरण, (c) चित्र, (d) भौतिक गुण ।
उत्तर-
एथिल ऐमीन (Ethyl Amine), C,H,NH, बनाने की प्रयोगशाला विधि- प्रयोगशाला में एथिल ऐमीन हॉफमैन ब्रोमाइड अभिक्रिया द्वारा बनायी जाती है । इस अभिक्रिया में प्रोपिओनैमाइड की ब्रोमीन एवं कास्टिक पोटॉश विलयन से अभिक्रिया होती है । अभिक्रिया अग्र पदों में पूरी होती है
C₂H₅CONH₂ + Br₂ → C₂H₅CONHBr + HBr
KOH + HBr→KBr + H₂O
C₂H₅CONHBr +KOH →C₂H₅NCO+KBr + H₂O
C₂H₅NCO+2KOH→C₂H₅NH₂+K₂CO₃
C₂H₅CONH₂+ Br₂ +4KOH → C₂H₅NH₂+ 2KBr+K₂CO₃+2H₂O

विधि- गोल पेंदी के एक आसवन फ्लास्क में ब्रोमीन तथा प्रोपिओनैमाइड की तुल्य मात्राएँ लेकर उसमें 10% KOH विलयन तब तक डालते हैं जब तक की ब्रोमीन का लाल रंग लुप्त न हो जाए। इस विलयन में सान्द्र (50%) KOH विलयन अधिक मात्रा में डालते हैं और उसको जल-ऊष्मक पर ब्रोमो-प्रोपिओनैमाइड 57.67°C तक गर्म करते हैं । फ्लास्क का विलयन जब रंगहीन हो जाता है, तब एथिल ऐमीन आसंवित होने लगती है, जिसे तनु HCI पर अवशोषित कर लिया जाता है।

भौतिक गुण-यह रंगहीन, अमोनिया जैसी गंध वाला तनु  द्रव है, जो जल एवं कार्बनिक विलायकों में विलेय है । यह ‘ ज्वलनशील पदार्थ है। इसका क्वथनांक 19°C है।

प्रश्न 9.
प्रयोगशाला में ऐनिलीन बनाने की विधि का सचित्र वर्णन कीजिए।
उत्तर
ऐनिलीन, ऐमीनो बेंजीन अथवा फेनिल ऐमीन (C₆H₅NH₂) प्रयोगशाला में बनानाप्रयोग-शाला में ऐनिलीन नाइट्रोबेंजीन को टिन और हाइड्रोक्लोरिक अम्ल द्वारा उत्पन्न नवजात हाइड्रोजन से अपचयित कर प्राप्त किया जाता है।

विधि (Procedure)-एक गोल पेंदे के फ्लास्क में 30g नाइट्रोबेंजीन सान्द्र HCI (4 भाग) व 60 g जिंक लेकर उसमें 150 ml सान्द्र HCI वायु संघनित्र द्वारा डालते हैं
पश्चवाही संघनित्र ।थोड़ा-थोड़ा HCI डालकर हिलाते जाते हैं और फ्लास्क को नल से ठण्डा नाइट्रोबेंजीन (1 भाग) करते जाते हैं । समस्त अम्ल डालने के बाद उसे जल-ऊष्मक पर तब तक गर्म ! करते हैं, जब तक कि नाइट्रोबेंजीन की तेलीय बूंदें गायब न हो जायें । इस प्रक्रम Y -टिन (2 भाग) में बने हुए ऐनिलीन व SnCl₄, HCl की उपस्थिति में परस्पर संयुक्त | होकर लवण (C₆H₅ NH₃), SnCl₆ बना लेते हैं । इसे विघटित करने के + लिए इस मिश्रण में 40% कॉस्टिक सोडा विलयन धीरे-धीरे करके तब तक डालते हैं जब तक कि बना हुआ अवक्षेप पुनः घुल न जाय आर _योगाला में विलीन बनाना विलयन उदासीन न हो जाये

(C₂H₅NH₃)₂SnCl₆+8NaOH → 2C₆H₅NH₂+ 6NaCl + Na₂SnO₃ +5H₂O
इस मिश्रण के वाष्प-आवसन से एनिलीन प्राप्त हो जाती है।

प्रश्न 10.
प्राथमिक, द्वितीयक एवं तृतीयक ऐमीनों में किन्हीं पाँच बिंदुओं में विभेद कीजिये।
उत्तर

प्रश्न 11.
नाइट्रोबेंजीन बनाने की प्रयोगशाला विधि का समीकरण दीजिए एवं नाइट्रो-बेंजीन द्वारा होने वाली निम्नलिखित की रासायनिक अभिक्रिया दीजिए
(1) नाइट्रीकरण
(2) सल्फोनीकरण।
उत्तर
प्रयोगशाला में नाइट्रोबेंजीन बनाना-प्रयोगशाला में नाइट्रोबेंजीन सान्द्र नाइट्रिक अम्ल और सान्द्र सल्फ्यूरिक अम्ल के मिश्रण द्वारा 60°C से कम ताप पर बेंजीन का नाइट्रीकरण करने से बनता है।

नाइट्रोबेंजीन की निम्न के साथ क्रिया
1. नाइट्रीकरण- नाइट्रोबेंजीन को सधूम HNO₃ के साथ सान्द्र H₂SO₄ की उपस्थिति में गर्म करने पर m-डाइ नाइट्रोबेंजीन बनती है।

m-डाइ नाइट्रोबेंजीन का नाइट्रीकरण करने पर 1, 3, 5-ट्राइ नाइट्रोबेंजीन (T.N.B.) बनती है।

2. सल्फोनीकरण-नाइट्रोबेंजीन को सधूम H₂SO₄ के साथ गर्म करने पर m-नाइट्रोबेंजीन सल्फोनिक अम्ल बनता है।

प्रश्न 12.
C₄H₁₁N के संभव समावयवी लिखिए।
उत्तर
1. स्थान समावयवी
CH₃-CH₂-CH₂-CH₂-NH₂Butane-1 amine

2. श्रृंखला समावयवी

3. मध्यावयवी

प्रश्न 13.
C₃H₉N के संभव समावयवी लिखिए एवं समावयवता का प्रकार लिखिए।
उत्तर
1. क्रियात्मक समूह समावयवता-

2. स्थान समावयवता-

MP Board Class 12th Chemistry Solutions

MP Board Class 12th Accountancy Important Questions Chapter 8 Financial Statements of a Company

Financial Statements of a Company Important Questions

Financial Statements of a Company Objective Type Questions

Question 1.
Choose the correct answer:

Question 1.
Following are included in the financial statement of a commercial firm:
(a) Balance Sheet
(b) Profit & Loss statement
(c) Cash flow statement
(d) All of these.
Answer:
(d) All of these.

Question 2.
The General methods adopted for financial analysis are:
(a) Horizontal Analysis
(b) Vertical Analysis
(c) Ratio Analysis
(d) All of these.
Answer:
(d) All of these.

Question 3.
Annual Report of a company is issued for:
(a) Director
(b) Auditors
(c) Shareholders
(d) Management.
Answer:
(c) Shareholders

Question 4.
Comparative Analysis is also known as:
(a) Active Analysis
(b) Horizontal Analysis
(c) Vertical Analysis
(d) External Analysis.
Answer:
(b) Horizontal Analysis

Question 5.
Balance Sheet of a firm disclose the information related to financial condition for:
(a) A specific given period
(b) During a specific period
(c) A specific period
(d) None of these.
Answer:
(a) A specific given period

Question 6.
In which meeting is it compulsory for a company to produce it’s balance sheet and profit and loss account compulsory:
(a) Extra ordinary general meeting
(b) Debenture, holder’s meeting
(c) Annual general meeting
(d) Meeting of board of directors.
Answer:
(c) Annual general meeting

Question 7.
Which of the following is prepared in horizontal or vertical format:
(a) Profit and loss account
(b) Balance sheet
(c) Income and expenditure account
(d) Cash account.
Answer:
(b) Balance sheet

Question 8.
Which of the following capital is not included for totaling of balance sheet:
(a) Paid – up capital
(b) Issued capital
(c) Authorised capital
(d) Share capital.
Answer:
(c) Authorised capital

Question 9.
Which of the following liability is shown below the balance sheet separately :
(a) Current liability
(b) Fixed liability
(c) Contingent liability
(d) Overdraft.
Answer:
(c) Contingent liability

Question 10.
The amount of preliminary expenses and underwriting commission in shown under which heading and which side of balance sheet:
(a) Liability side
(b) Assets side under the head of miscellaneous expenses
(c) None of the sides
(d) None of these.
Answer:
(b) Assets side under the head of miscellaneous expenses

Question 2.
Fill in the blanks:

1. Generally analysis mean …………….. of data.
2. Meaning of formulation is …………….. of data.
3. Comparative Analysis is also known as …………….. analysis.
4. The General form of analysis is also known as …………….. analysis.
5. The actual inflow and outflow of cash in an organization / institution is known as …………….. analysis.
6. Underwriter is that person, firm or company who promises to …………….. the shares of a company.
7. The part of profit which is kept for unforeseen exigencies of future is called ……………..
8. The part of profit which is kept for distribution to shareholders is called as ……………..
9. The dividend which is proposed for distribution by company in the following year is called ……………..
10. The arrangement of employees provident fund is called as ……………..

Answer:

1. Simplification
2. Described
3. Horizontal
4. Vertical
5. Cash flow
6. Purchase
7. Reserve
8. Divisible profit
9. Proposed dividend
10. Provision.

Question 3.
Match the columns:

Answer:

1. (a) Underwriter
2. (c) Expenses incurred during formation of company
3. (b) External liability of a company
4. (e) The amount which has not been claimed by shareholders.
5. (d) Amount which is kept for distribution to share holders

Question 4.
Write true or false:

1. Cash flow statement is included in the financial statement of a commercial organization.
2. Comparative statement is a form of horizontal analysis.
3. Ratio analysis establish relation between two financial statements.
4. Financial analysis are used by the creditors only.
5. The financial analysis provide assistance to derive the accurate decision to the analyse.
6. Preliminary expenses are incurred during dissolution of a company.
7. Discount on issue of shares and debentures are shown is assets side of balance sheet.
8. Preliminary expenses are considered as capital expenditure.
9. The balance sheet of a company is prepared as per schedule VI and part I of company’s act 1956.
10. Preparation of balance sheet is not mandatory for a company.

Answer:

1. True
2. True
3. True
4. False
5. True
6. False
7. True
8. False
9. True
10. False.

Question 5.
Write the answer in one word / sentence:

1. Which are the two basic financial statement of a company ?
2. What are non current Assets ?
3. Give two examples of current liabilities.
4. What is contingent liabilities ?
5. Write two items of the heading ‘Provision’.
6. The capital beyond which the company cannot issue it’s shares.
7. The person who promotes a company ?
8. The capital which has been received by the company ?
9. What condition of a company is disclosed by balance sheet of company ?
10. Which type of expenditure is underwriting commission ?

Answer:

1. Profit & Loss A / c, Balance Sheet
2. Assets kept for more than one year
3. Creditors, Bills Payable
4. Liabilities which depend on the occurrence of certain event in fixture
5. Provision for Taxation, Provision for Divident
6. Authorised capital
7. Promoters
8. Paid-up capital
9. True and correct
10. Deferred Revenue expenditure.

Financial Statements of a Company Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you mean by contingent liabilities ? Give two examples of it
Answer:
These are liabilities which will exist or not, it will depend on any future incident. They are not shown in the liability side of balance sheet. But they are shown below the balance sheet as a foot note. These are the claims of companies outside parties. It can’t be accepted as a loan.

Example:
Amount of bills discounted from the bank, partial payment of shares, etc.

Question 2.
Give the definition of financial statement and five examples of fixed assets.
Answer:
The financial statements are those statements which are prepared to ascertain the profit or loss during an accounting period and position of assets and liabilities at a certain date. These statements are the outcomes of the summarizing process of accounting and are the sources of information based on which conclusion are drawn about the profitability and financial position of a company definitions:

John N. Myer:
‘The financial statement provide a summary of account of a business enterprises, the balance sheet reflecting the assets, liabilities and capital as on a certain date and the income statement showing the results of operations during a certain period.”

As per the Companies Act 2013:
‘‘Financial statement will present a true and appropriate view of the positioning details to the company or companies when it will follow the schedule writing in Section 133 and in the prescribed format of Schedule III of the Act.”

Fixed Assets:
“These are those assets which are used in the business for long duration such as land and buildings, plant and machinery, Furniture, Vehicles, Livestock, Goodwill, Trademark, patent etc.

Question 3.
What do you mean by current assets ?
Answer:
Current assets:
Under this heading we include all such assets which are expected to be converted in cash within a year from the date of balance sheet. The items that come under this heading are divided into following two subheadings :
(A) Current assets
(B) Loans and advances.

(A) Current assets:
The items included in this subheading are as under:

1. Accrued interest on investment
2. Stores and spare parts
3. Loose tools
4. Stock in trade
5. Work-in-progress
6. Sundry Debtors:
   • Debts outstanding for more than six months
   • Other debts Less :  Provision for doubtful debts,
7. Cash and bank balance. In case of debtors, their particulars should also be given regarding their quality
8. such as; (i) Debts fully secured
9. Debts secured on personal security and
10. Debts considered doubtful or bad.

Question 4.
Differentiate between reserves and provisions.
Answer:
The various differences between reserves and provisions are as follows:

Question 5.
Write a short note on:

1. Preliminary expenses
2. Unclaimed dividend.

Answer:
1. Preliminary expenses:
While commencing a company, apart from the value of assets, other expenses which are incurred are called preliminary expenses. It includes expenses in acquisition of buildings, printing expenses of various documents, commission given for the transaction of assets, brokerage and other sundry expenses.

2. Unclaimed dividend:
That amount of declared dividend, where no claim has been made so far, is called unclaimed dividend. It should be paid within a year.

Question 6.
Rearrange the following items under three heads :

1. Fixed Assets
2. Current Assets
3. Loans and Advances.

Livestock, leasehold land, Cash in hand, Loose tools, Trademark, Work-in progress, Goodwill, Stores and spare parts, Plant, Trademark, Furniture, Interest accrued, Bills receivables, Vehicles, Bank balance, Debtors, Loans to subsidiaries, Land.
Solution:

Question 7.
Show how the assets and liabilities are arranged properly according to Section VI, Part-I of Companies Act of 1956 from the following information

Answer:

Question 8.
Under what headings the following items are shown in the Balance sheet of the company:

1. Goodwill
2. Unclaimed dividend
3. Provision for tax
4. Securities premium A/c
5. Loose tools.

Solution:
Balance Sheet of Company:

Question 9.
Under what headings will you show following items in balance sheet:

1. Goodwill
2. Bill receivable
3. Capital reserve
4. Sundry creditors
5. Building
6. Sundry Debtors
7. Debentures
8. Issued capital.

Answer:

1. Goodwill — Fixed assets.
2. Bills receivable — Current assets
3. Capital Reserve — Reserves and provisions
4. Issued capital — Share capital
5. Sundry creditors — Current liabilities
6. Building — Fixed assets
7. Sundry Debtors — Current assets
8. Debentures — Secured loan.

Financial Statements of a Company Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What are the main items of liability side of balance sheet of a company ?
Answer:
Main Items of Balance Sheet and their Details: The main items of balance sheet as mentioned in the part I of the schedule VI of the Indian Companies Act 1956 is as under:

Main items of liability side:
In the balance sheet, the items of liabilities are mentioned under the following heads:

1. Share capital:
The share capital should be classified into following categories:

(i) Authorized capital:
This is the maximum amount of capital which a company can collect by way of issuing of shares. Under this heading the number and the nominal value of shares is given. This amount of capital is not included in the total of the liability side since only a part of the authorized capital is issued for subscription.

(ii) Issued capital:
It is that part of the authorized capital which has actually been issued to the public for subscription so far. It mentions each category of capital, i.e., equity or preference shares which has been issued. Issued capital can never be greater than the authorized capital.

(iii) Subscribed capital:
Subscribed capital is that part of issued capital for which the applications have been received from the public. Subscribed capital is also not included in the total of the liability side. To keep it separate from the total, double close lines are drawn below this amount.

(iv) Called-up capital: It is that part of subscribed capital which has actually been called from the public. The called-up capital can never exceeds the subscribed capital.

(v) Paid-up capital: It is that part of called-up capital which has actually been paid by the public in response to the calls made by the company.

2. Reserve and surplu:
Reserves are the part of profit which is accumulated out of undistributed profits. The reserves and surplus should be categorically mentioned in the balance sheet as:

• Capital Reserve
• Capital Redemption Reserve
• Share Premium Account
• Other specific reserves
• Proposed additions to reserves
• Sinking fund.

After making other necessary appropriations the balance of profit and loss account is also shown under this head.
In case of each of the above reserves, the additions and deductions made since last balance sheet must be disclosed clearly. The debit balance (if any) of the profit and loss account must be shown as deducted from unspecific free revenue reserve. The surplus of profit and loss account (after appropriation) should also be shown under this head.

3. Secured loans:
Loan obtained against pledge of assets as security or against guarantee of repayment made by the company is called secured loan. It includes debentures as per their condition of repayment, bank loans, loans and advances from subsidiary companies, other loans advances, etc. All secured loans must be shown under proper subheadings. Interest accrued and due on unsecured loans are to be included under the appropriate subheadings.

In addition to it the terms of redemption or conversion of loans should also be mentioned along with the earliest date of Redemption or conversion. Under this heading the loan taken from the directors, managing directors / agents, secretaries, etc. should be shown separately. Against each item of loan the security offered should be specified in the balance sheet.

4. Unsecured loan:
When a company borrows loan without giving any security, such loans are known as unsecured loans. The items included under this heading are; Fixed deposits, loans and advances from subsidiary companies, short-term loans and advances from banks or from others. Other loans and advances from banks. Here, by short-term loan we mean such loans which are due for repayment within a period of one year from the date of the balance sheet.

Unsecured loans from directors, managers, managing directors, secretary, treasures and managers should be shown separately. Interest due, but not paid on unsecured loans should be shown along with the concerned loan amount.

5. Current liabilities and provisions:
This item is divided into two main parts namely:

(i) Current liabilities:
All such liabilities which are payable within a period of one year are included under this heading. The items included in it are; bills payable, sundry creditors, advance income, outstanding expenses, unclaimed dividends, interest accrued but not due on loans, etc.

(ii) Provisions:
It is a charge against profit to meet certain known liability for which the exact burden cannot be ascertained with substantial accuracy. In case, such provision exceeds the actual liability the excess is treated as reserve. Provision is maintained even in the years of loss, since it is a charge against the profit.

Under this head the items like provision for taxation, proposed dividend, provision for contingencies, for P.F. of the employees, for other staff benefit schemes such as employees insurance and pension, etc. are included in it.

Question 2.
Explain the items which are shown on the asset side of balance sheet under the main heads of public limited company.
Answer:
The following items are included on the asset side of the balance sheet of a public limited company under the main heads:

1. Fixed assets:
Under this heading, fixed assets of the company are shown in their cost price. Appreciation or depreciation are added or deducted.

2. Investments:
To earn income securities are purchased for business purpose. They are shown under this heading.

3. Current assets, loans and advances:
This heading is also divided into two subheads:

(i) Current assets:
It means such assets which can be changed into cash within the year or immediately. Stock of goods, sundry debtors, etc. are entered in this head.

(ii) Loans and advances:
Under this heading, it is entered bills receivable, loans and advances from subsidiary companies etc. are shown.

4. Miscellaneous expenditure:
Under this heading, preliminary expenses, commission and brokerage on shares and debentures etc. are shown.

5. Profit and loss account:
When there is a debit balance of profit and loss A/c, it is shown under this heading.

Question 3.
Write the names of accounts which are shown on the assets side and liabilities side of balance sheet of a company under main heads in the horizontal form.
Or
Write some important items (only main headings) showed as Indian company’s Act 1956 schedule VI-I in balance sheet.
Answer:
Under the ahead heads, the items are shown on the assets and liabilities side of a company balance sheet:
Balance Sheet of a Ltd. Company:

Question 4.
Write some elements of sound or good financial statement
Or
Write the characteristic of an ideal financial statement.
Answer:
Elements of sound financial statement are as follows:

• Simplicity : It should be simple and easy to understand. The size of this kind of financial statement not so big.
• Accuracy: It should be accurate whatever the conclusion drawn from it are accusable and effective.
• Understandable: It should be easy to understand. Any body can understand.
• Easy: It should be easy to calculate. An average person can understand and able to calculate it.

Question 5.
Write short notes on following:
(A) Current liabilities and provisions
(B) Current assets, loans and advances.

Answer:
(A) Current Liabilities and Provisions: There are two parts under this head:
(a) Current Liabilities:
These are those liabilities which are repayable within one year. Current liabilities include bills payable, sundry creditors, advance payments, unclaimed dividends, etc. These are shown in part A.

(b) Provisions:
‘Provisions’ are shown in part B and they include provision for taxation, proposed dividend, provident fund, provision for insurance and pension schemes etc.

(B) Current Assets, Loans and Advances:
These are the assets which are likely to be converted into cash within a year from the date of the balance sheet. These are divided into two parts:

(a) Current Assets:
These include, (i) Interest accrued on investments, stores and spare parts, loose tools, stock-in-trade, works-in-progress, sundry debtors (Debts out standing for more than 6 months; other debts), cash and bank balance.

(b) Loans and Advances:
Cash loans given to different persons, advances against purchase of goods and various expenses by the company etc., are included in it. These items should be shown in the balance sheet under separate subheadings:

• Advances and Loans to Subsidiaries,
• Bills of exchange,
• Advances recoverable in cash or in kind for value to be received eg., Rates, Taxes, Insurance etc.
• Balance with customs, port trust etc.

Question 6.
Explain in details, the importance of financial statements.
Answer:
Following are the importance of financial statements for various parties:

1. Management:
The management uses accounting information to take various decision. The management has the responsibility to protect die owner’s investment and to increase its value by managing the business efficiently so that it earns maximum profit.

2. Investors:
The investor includes both long term and short term investors. The main purpose of these investors is to protect the appropriate money and earn enough income on it. For this they need much information about the company’s economic status, profit earing capacity, current value of shares.

3. Bank and other lending institutions:
As bank and financial institutions provide loan to the business they are interested in knowing the performance of the business to know whether it is making progress as projected to ensure the safety and recovery of the advanced I loan.

4. Employees and trade unions:
The employees and trade union gets financial status and financial information from these statements. The various facilities and employee’s demand depend on the financial condition of the business enter prize. Earning capacity are affected by wages, allowances, bonus etc.

5. Government and government agencies:
The government came to know about the economic development of the country from the financial statements. The government agencies studies the security of the interest of the shareholders. The government calculate the national income from the information collected through these statement and also ensures that the legal provisions in the articles are being followed or not.

Question 7.
Explain the limitations of financial statements.
Answer:
The limitation of financial statements are as follows:

1. Do not reflect current situation:
Financial statements are prepared on the basis of historical cost. Since the purchasing power of money is changing, the value of assets and liabilities shown in financial statements do not reflect current market situation.

2. Assets may not realize:
Accounting is done on the basis of certain conventions. Some of the assets may not realise the state value if liquidation is forced on the company. Assets shown in the balance sheet reflect only unexpired cost.

3. Bias:
Financial statements are the outcomes of the recorded facts, accounting concepts and convention used and personal judgement made in different situations by the Accountants. Hence, bias may be observed in the results and the financial position depicted in financial statements may not be realistic.

4. Aggregate information:
Financial statements show aggregate information but not detailed information. Hence they may not help the users in decision making sufficiently.

5. Vital information missing:
Balance sheet does not disclose information relating to loss of markets and cease of agreements which have an important impact on the enter prize.

6. No qualitative information:
Financial statements contain only monetary information but not qualitative information like industrial relations, industrial climate, labor relation, quality of work etc.

Question 8.
Draw the specimen of income statement and explain its elements.
Answer:
Profit and Loss A/c
For the year ending on of company Ltd.

MP Board Class 12 Accountancy Important Questions

In this article, we will share MP Board Class 12th Economics Important Questions Unit 3 उत्पादक व्यवहार एवं पूर्ति Pdf, These solutions are solved subject experts from the latest edition books.

MP Board Class 12th Economics Important Questions Unit 3 उत्पादक व्यवहार एवं पूर्ति

उत्पादक व्यवहार एवं पूर्ति Important Questions

उत्पादक व्यवहार एवं पूर्ति वस्तुनिष्ठ प्रश्न

प्रश्न 1.
सही विकल्प चुनकर लिखिए –

प्रश्न (a)
उत्पादन के साधन होते हैं –
(a) दो
(b) तीन
(c) चार
(d) पाँच
उत्तर:
(d) पाँच

प्रश्न (b)
स्थिर लागत को कहते हैं –
(a) परिवर्तनशील लागत
(b) प्रमुख लागत
(c) पूरक लागत
(d) अल्पकालीन लागत।
उत्तर:
(c) पूरक लागत

प्रश्न (c)
पूर्ति में उसी कीमत पर गिरावट आ जाती है जब –
(a) पूर्ति में कमी हो जाय
(b) जब पूर्ति में संकुचन हो जाय
(c) पूर्ति में वृद्धि हो जाय
(d) पूर्ति में विस्तार हो जाय।
उत्तर:
(a) पूर्ति में कमी हो जाय

प्रश्न (d)
उत्पादन का सक्रिय साधन है –
(a) पूँजी
(b) श्रम
(c) भूमि
(d) इनमें से कोई नहीं।
उत्तर:
(b) श्रम

प्रश्न (e)
अल्पकाल में उत्पादन प्रक्रिया में निम्नलिखित में कौन से साधन होते हैं –
(a) स्थिर साधन
(b) परिवर्तनशील साधन
(c) (a) और (b) दोनों
(d) इनमें से कोई नहीं।
उत्तर:
(c) (a) और (b) दोनों

प्रश्न 2.
रिक्त स्थानों की पूर्ति कीजिए –

1. अल्पकालीन उत्पादन फलन ……………………………… कहा जाता है।
2. पैमाने के प्रतिफलों का संबंध …………………………… काल अवधि से है।
3. उत्पादन की प्रति इकाई लागत को ……………………………. कहते हैं।
4. उत्पादन की एक इकाई की बिक्री में वृद्धि होने से आय में होने वाली वृद्धि को ……………………… कहते हैं।
5. एक उत्पादक तब संतुलन में होता है, जब उसका ………………………………. होता है।
6. पूर्ति का नियम, कीमत एवं वस्तु की पूर्ति के बीच ………………………………. संबंध बताता है।
7. दूध जैसी वस्तु के लिए पूर्ति लोच ……………………………….. होती है।

उत्तर:

1. परिवर्तनशील अनुपात के नियम
2. दीर्घ
3. औसत लागत
4. सीमांत लागत
5. लाभ
6. धनात्मक
7. शून्य।

प्रश्न 3.
सत्य/असत्य बताइए –

1. रिकार्डो का लगान सिद्धान्त उत्पत्ति ह्रास नियम पर आधारित है।
2. अविभाज्यता के कारण पैमाने के घटते प्रतिफल की अवस्था लागू होती है।
3. स्थिर लागत को पूरक लागत भी कहते हैं।
4. पूर्ण प्रतियोगिता की स्थिति में एक फर्म का MC वक्र, MR वक्र को जब ऊपर से काटता है तो उस ‘ समय उसको अधिकतम लाभ की प्राप्ति होती है।
5. पूर्ति तथा कीमत में विपरीत संबंध होता है।
6. शीघ्र नष्ट होने वाली वस्तुओं की पूर्ति बेलोच होती है।
7. उत्पत्ति के चार नियम प्रतिपादित किये गये हैं।

उत्तर:

1. सत्य
2. असत्य
3. सत्य
4. असत्य
5. असत्य
6. सत्य
7. असत्य।

प्रश्न 4.
सही जोड़ी बनाइए –

उत्तर:

1. (b)
2. (c)
3. (a)
4. (e)
5. (d).

प्रश्न 5.
एक शब्द/वाक्य में उत्तर दीजिए –

1. हस्तांतरण आय किस लागत को कहा जाता है?
2. स्थिर लागत और परिवर्तनशील लागत का योग किसके बराबर होता है?
3. कीमत में थोड़ी – सी गिरावट होने पर वस्तु की पूर्ति शून्य हो जाती है तो इसे किसकी पूर्ति की लोच कहा जाता है?
4. उत्पादन की एक अतिरिक्त इकाई बेचने से कुल आगम में जो वृद्धि होती है, उसे कहते हैं?
5. एक फर्म साम्य की दशा में कौन-सा लाभ प्राप्त करती है?

उत्तर:

1. अवसर लागत को
2. कुल लागत के
3. पूर्णत: लोचदार
4. सीमांत आगम
5. अधिकतम।

उत्पादक व्यवहार एवं पूर्ति लघु उत्तरीय प्रश्न

प्रश्न 1.
स्थिर लागत एवं परिवर्तनशील लागत में अन्तर स्पष्ट कीजिए?
उत्तर:
स्थिर लागत एवं परिवर्तनशील लागत में अन्तर –

स्थिर लागत –

1. “परिवर्तनशील लागत स्थिर लागतों का सम्बन्ध उत्पादन के स्थिर।
2. कुल स्थिर लागतों पर उत्पादन की मात्रा का। परिवर्तनशील लागतें उत्पादन की मात्रा से कोई प्रभाव नहीं पड़ता।
3. स्थिर लागतें उत्पादन बन्द कर देने पर भी शून्य परिवर्तनशील लागतें उत्पादन बन्द कर देने पर नहीं होती हैं।
4. स्थिर लागतों की हानि उठाकर भी अन्य काल| एक उत्पादक तभी उत्पादन जारी रखेगा, जब में एक उत्पादक, उत्पादन जारी रख सकता है।

परिवर्तनशील लागतों –

1. परिवर्तनशील साधनों से होता है।
2. परिवर्तनशील लागतें उत्पादन की मात्रा से कोई प्रभाव नहीं पड़ता।
3. परिवर्तनशील लागतें उत्पादन बन्द कर देने पर नहीं होती हैं।
4. एक उत्पादक तभी उत्पादन जारी रखेगा, जब में एक उत्पादक, उत्पादन जारी रख सकता है। उसे कम-से-कम परिवर्तनशील लागतों के बराबर कीमत अवश्य मिले।

प्रश्न 2.
लागत वक्रों की आकृति ‘U’ के समान होने के प्रमुख कारण लिखिए?
उत्तर:
लागत वक्रों की आकृति ‘U’ आकार की होने का सर्वाधिक महत्वपूर्ण कारण फर्म को प्राप्त होने वाली आंतरिक बचते हैं। आंतरिक बचतों को निम्नांकित चार भागों में बाँटा जा सकता है –

1. तकनीकी बचतें:
उत्पादन की तकनीक में सुधार पर बचतें प्राप्त होती हैं, उन्हें तकनीकी बचतें कहते हैं। आधुनिक मशीनों एवं बड़े आकार की मशीनों का प्रयोग करने के कारण उत्पादन अधिक मात्रा में होता है, तब प्रति इकाई लागत कम आती है।

2. श्रम संबंधी बचतें:
श्रम संबंधी बचतें श्रम विभाजन एवं विशिष्टीकरण का परिणाम होती हैं। जब उत्पादन बड़े पैमाने पर किया जाता है तो श्रम विभाजन एवं विशिष्टीकरण भी उतना ही अधिक संभव होता है। परिणामस्वरूप श्रमिकों की कार्य कुशलता में वृद्धि होती है जिससे प्रति इकाई उत्पादन लागत कम हो जाती है।

3. विपणन की बचतें:
कोई भी फर्म जब अपने उत्पादन की मात्रा को बढ़ाती है, तो विक्रय लागतें उस अनुपात में नहीं बढ़ती हैं, जिससे प्रति इकाई लागत में कमी आ जाती है।

4. प्रबंधकीय बचतें:
उत्पादन की मात्रा को बढ़ाने पर प्रबंध पर होने वाले व्ययों में कमी आती है, जिसे प्रबंधकीय बचतें कहते हैं। एक कुशल प्रबंधक अधिक मात्रा में उत्पादन का प्रबंध उसी कुशलता के साथ कर सकता है, जितना कि थोड़े उत्पादन का, तो फर्म की प्रति इकाई उत्पादन लागत कम हो जाती

प्रश्न 3.
औसत आय और सीमान्त आय में संबंध बताइए?
उत्तर:
औसत आय और सीमान्त आय वक्र में निम्न संबंध होते हैं –

1. जब तक औसत आय वक्र ऊपर से नीचे की ओर गिरता है, तब तक सीमान्त आय वक्र भी अनिवार्य रूप से औसत आय से कम होगी।
2. जब औसत आय वक्र तथा सीमान्त आय वक्र दोनों गिरते हुए होते हैं, तब यदि औसत आय वक्र के किसी बिन्दुं से OY अक्ष पर लम्ब डाला जाये तो सीमान्त आय वक्र सदैव उस लम्ब केन्द्र से गुजरेगा।
3. जब औसत आय वक्र मूलबिन्दु की ओर नतोदर होता है तब औसत आय वक्र में किसी बिन्दु से AY अक्ष पर डाले गये लम्ब को सीमान्त आय वक्र आधे से कम दूरी पर काटता है।
4. जब औसत आय वक्र मूलबिन्दु की ओर उन्नतोदर होता है तब औसत आय वक्र के किसी बिन्दु के OY अक्ष पर डाले गये लम्ब को सीमान्त आय वक्र आधे से अधिक दूरी पर काटता है।

प्रश्न 4.
एक उत्पादक संतुलन की स्थिति में कब होता है?
उत्तर:
एक उत्पादक संतुलन की स्थिति में तब होता है जब उत्पादक अधिकतम लाभ अर्जित कर रहा हो। एक उत्पादक अधिकतम लाभ वहाँ प्राप्त करता है जहाँ पर लाभ = TR – TC अधिकतम हो। जहाँ TR > TC होता है वहाँ पर फर्म (उत्पादक) को असामान्य लाभ प्राप्त होता है एवं जहाँ पर TR < TC होता है वहाँ पर हानि भी उत्पादक को ही होती है।

प्रश्न 5.
पूर्ति का क्या आशय है?
उत्तर:
किसी वस्तु की पूर्ति से आशय का सम्मानित एक वस्तु की विभिन्न कीमतों पर उत्पादक द्वारा बेची जाने वाली विविध मात्राओं से होता है। पूर्ति वास्तव में उस अनुसूची या तालिका को दर्शाती है जो वस्तु की उन मात्राओं को बताती है जिस पर एक उत्पादक विभिन्न कीमतों पर निश्चित समय पर विक्रय करने के लिए कार्य करता है।

प्रश्न 6.
पूर्ति अनुसूची से आपका क्या आशय है?
उत्तर:
पूर्ति अनुसूची एक तालिका है जो वस्तु की विभिन्न संचय कीमतों पर बिक्री के लिए प्रस्तुत की जाने वाली उस वस्तु की विभिन्न मात्राओं को दर्शाती है। पूर्ति अनुसूची भी दो प्रकार की हो सकती है व्यक्तिगत पूर्ति अनुसूची एवं बाजार की पूर्ति अनुसूची। व्यक्तिगत पूर्ति अनुसूची बाजार में किसी एक फर्म की पूर्ति अनुसूची होती है जबकि बाजार अनुसूची बाजार में किसी विशेष वस्तु का उत्पादन करने वाली सभी फर्मों की पूर्ति के योग को कहते हैं।

प्रश्न 7.
पूर्ति वक्र किसे कहते हैं?
उत्तर:
अनूसूची के रेखीय प्रस्तुतिकरण को पूर्ति वक्र कहा जाता है। किसी वस्तु की विभिन्न संभाव्य कीमतों पर बिक्री के लिए प्रस्तुत किए जाने वाले न लाभ न हानि की विभिन्न मात्राओं को दर्शाने वाला वक्र होता है। यह वक्र भी व्यक्तिगत पूर्ति वक्र एवं बाजार पूर्ति के रूप में विभाजित किया जा सकता है। व्यक्तिगत पूर्ति वक्र बाजार में एक फर्म की पूर्ति को रेखाचित्र में प्रस्तुत करता है जबकि बाजार पूर्ति वक्र किसी बाजार में सभी फर्मों की पूर्ति का योग होता है जिसे रेखाचित्र के रूप में प्रस्तुत किया जा सकता है।

प्रश्न 8.
पूर्ति के नियम की सचित्र व्याख्या कीजिए?
उत्तर:
यदि अन्य बातें समान रहें तो वस्तु की पूर्ति की मात्रा एवं उसकी कीमत में धनात्मक संबंध होता है। वस्तु की कीमत बढ़ने से पूर्ति की मात्रा बढ़ती है एवं वस्तु की कीमत घटने से पूर्ति की मात्रा कम होती है। एक उदाहरण द्वारा इसे निम्न प्रकार से स्पष्ट किया जा सकता है –

प्रश्न 9.
पूर्ति वक्र पर संचलन (Moments) एवं खिसकाव (Shifting) के कौन – से कारण हैं?
उत्तर:
जब वस्तु की कीमत में परिवर्तन होता है तो इस परिवर्तन के कारण पूर्ति वक्र पर संचलन दिखाई देता है। पूर्ति वक्र में खिसकाव तब होता है जब वस्तु की अपनी कीमत के अतिरिक्त अन्य कारकों में परिवर्तन दृष्टिगोचर होता है)। पूर्ति वक्र पर संचलन को जानने के लिए हमें पूर्ति के विस्तार एवं पूर्ति के संकुचन को जानना आवश्यक है पूर्ति वक्र में खिसकाव को वस्तु की पूर्ति में वृद्धि एवं वस्तु की पूर्ति में कमी के द्वारा जाना जाता है।

जब वस्तु की अपनी कीमत बढ़ने से पूर्ति की मात्रा बढ़ती है तो पूर्ति का विस्तार कहते हैं। इसके विपरीत होने पर संकुचन कहते हैं। हड्कि वस्तु की अपनी कीमत के अतिरिक्त अन्य कारण से पूर्ति की मात्रा में वृद्धि होती है तो इसे पूर्ति में वृद्धि कहते हैं। इसके विपरीत होने पर पूर्ति में कमी होती है।

प्रश्न 10.
पूर्ति की कीमत लोच से आप क्या समझते हैं?
उत्तर:
पूर्ति की कीमत लोच का तात्पर्य एक वस्तु की कीमत में परिवर्तनों के कारण वस्तु की पूर्ति की मात्रा की अनुक्रियाशीलता का मापन करती है। दूसरे शब्दों में, पूर्ति की कीमत लोच वस्तु की पूर्ति की मात्रा में प्रतिशत परिवर्तन तथा वस्तु की कीमत में प्रतिशत परिवर्तनों का अनुपात कहलाती है। इसे निम्न समीकरण की सहायता से स्पष्ट किया जा सकता है –
E _s = \(\frac { \triangle Q }{ \triangle P } \times \frac { P }{ Q } \)

प्रश्न 11.
पूर्ति की कीमत लोच को मापने की प्रतिशत विधि एवं ज्यामितीय विधि को संक्षेप में समझाइये?
उत्तर:
पूर्ति की कीमत लोच को मापने में प्रतिशत विधि एवं ज्यामितीय विधि का उपयोग किया जा सकता है परन्तु इनमें प्रतिशत विधि अधिक लोकप्रिय है।

ज्यामितीय विधि के अंतर्गत एक सीधी रेखा वाले पूर्ति वक्र पर कीमत लोच ज्ञात करने के लिए उसे बढ़ाते जाते हैं।

1. जब वृद्धि पर पूर्ति मूल बिन्दु पर मिलता है तो E_s < 1 होता है।
2. जब वृद्धि पर पूर्ति वक्र X अक्ष के धनात्मक भाग को काटता है तो E_s < 1 होता है।
3. जब वृद्धि पर पूर्ति वक्र X अक्ष के ऋणात्मक भाग पर काटता है तो E_s > 1 होता है।

प्रश्न 12.
पूर्ति की लोच को कौन – से घटक प्रभावित करते हैं?
उत्तर:
पूर्ति की लोच को निम्न घटक प्रभावित करते हैं –

1. समयावधि
2. वस्तु की प्रकृति
3. प्राकृतिक अवरोध
4. उत्पादन लागत
5. उत्पादन की तकनीक
6. उत्पादन की जोखिम सहन करने की शक्ति
7. प्रयोग किए जाने वाले आगतों की प्रकृति
8. उत्पादक की अभिरुचि एवं योग्यता।

प्रश्न 13.
औसत स्थिर लागत की विशेषताएँ बताइये।
उत्तर:
विशेषताएँ –

1. औसत स्थिर लागत, कुल स्थिर लागत को फर्म के कुल उत्पादन मात्रा से भाग दिये जाने पर प्राप्त होती है –
2. अल्पकाल में उत्पादन की मात्रा में परिवर्तन होने पर कुल स्थिर लागत अपरिवर्तित रहती है –
3. उत्पादन के बढ़ने पर औसत स्थिर लागत घटती है –
4. औसत स्थिर लागत को प्रति इकाई स्थिर लागत भी कहा जाता है।

प्रश्न 14.
उत्पादन लागत से आप क्या समझते हैं? स्पष्ट लागतों एवं अस्पष्ट लागतों में अंतर बताइए?
अथवा
उपयुक्त उदाहरण देते हुए स्पष्ट एवं अस्पष्ट लागतों में अंतर कीजिए?
उत्तर:
वे सभी व्यय जो किसी उत्पादक या फर्म द्वारा वस्तु के उत्पादन व्यय के रूप में किए जाते हैं, उत्पादन लागत कहलाते हैं।

1. स्पष्ट लागतें: वे सभी लागतें जिनका उत्पादक भौतिक रूप से भुगतान करता है, जैसे – मजदूरी देना, विक्रय लागत आदि।
2. अस्पष्ट लागतें: वे लागतें जिनका उत्पादक को किसी दूसरे व्यक्ति को भुगतान नहीं करना पड़ता जैसे – स्वयं की फैक्टरी या फर्म।

प्रश्न 15.
कॉब – डगलस के उत्पादन फलन को समझाइए?
उत्तर:
कॉब – डगलस का उत्पादन फलन:
यह फलन सामान्यतः निर्माण उद्योगों पर लागू होता है, इस फलन के अनुसार उत्पादन की मात्रा केवल दो साधनों श्रम और पूँजी की मात्रा पर निर्भर करती है।
सूत्र के रूप में – q = x₁^α, x₂^β

जहाँ α तथा β दो धनात्मक संख्याएँ हैं, फर्म निर्गत की q मात्रा का उत्पादन कारक एक का x₁ मात्रा तथा कारक दो की x₂ मात्रा को प्रयोग में लाकर करती है।

प्रश्न 16.
अल्पकाल एवं दीर्घकाल की संकल्पनाओं को समझाइये?
उत्तर:
अल्पकाल वह समयावधि है जिसमें उत्पादन के कुछ साधन स्थिर रहते हैं एवं कुछ परिवर्तनशील होते हैं। यही कारण है कि केवल परिवर्तनशील साधनों को बढ़ाकर उत्पादन को बढ़ाया जा सकता है। दीर्घकाल वह समयावधि है जिसमें उत्पादन के साधन चाहे वे स्थिर हों या परिवर्तनशील सभी परिवर्तनशील होते हैं। इसलिए उत्पादन के सभी साधनों की मात्राओं को बढ़ाया जा सकता है। दीर्घकाल में यहाँ तक कि उत्पादन के पैमाने को भी परिवर्तित किया जा सकता है। अल्पकाल में लागतें स्थिर एवं परिवर्तनशील होती हैं परन्तु दीर्घकाल में केवल परिवर्तनशील होती हैं।

प्रश्न 17.
अल्पकालीन सीमांत लागत वक्र ‘U’ आकार का क्यों होता है?
उत्तर:
जब किसी भी फर्म की उत्पादन प्रक्रिया शुरू की जाती है तब शुरुआत में सीमांत लागत घटती है, किन्तु यह साधन की निश्चित इकाइयों के अल्पकालीन सीमांत नियोजन तक ही घटती है। इसके बाद फर्म को साधन का समता प्रतिफल प्राप्त लागत वक्र होता है। अतः सीमांत लागत स्थिर होने लगती है अंत में साधन की इकाइयों का नियोजन बढ़ाने पर ह्रासमान प्रतिफल लागू हो जाता है इस स्थिति में सीमांत। लागत वक्र ऊपर उठने लगता है।

इस प्रकार उत्पादन प्रक्रिया के प्रारंभिक चरणों में सीमांत लागत घटती है इसके बाद स्थिर होती है तथा अंतिम चरणों में बढ़ने लगती है जिसकी वजह से सीमांत लागत वक्र अंग्रेजी के अक्षर ‘U’ जैसा होता है।

प्रश्न 18.
दीर्घकालीन सीमांत लागत तथा औसत लागत वक्र कैसे दिखते हैं?
उत्तर:
दीर्घकाल में एक फर्म उत्पादन प्रक्रिया में सभी साधनों को समायोजित कर सकती है। उत्पादन प्रक्रिया में उत्पादन का पैमाना बढ़ाने पर शुरू में पैमाने का वर्धमान प्रतिफल मिलता है। इस स्थिति में उत्पादन की समान मात्रा का उत्पादन करने पर अपेक्षाकृत कम लागत आती है। फर्म जब तक उत्पादन का वर्धमान प्रतिफल प्राप्त करती है तब तक सीमान्त औसत लागत दोनों घटती हैं। इसके बाद समता प्रतिफल प्राप्त होता है अतः समान उत्पादन के लिए समान लागत आती है जिससे औस उत्पादन व सीमान्त लागत दोनों स्थिर हो जाती हैं। अंतत: पैमाने का ह्रासमान प्रतिफल लागू होने पर सीमान्त व औसत लागत दोनों बढ़ती हैं। इसलिए सीमान्त व औसत लागत वक्रों का आकार अंग्रेजी के अक्षर U जैसा होता है।

प्रश्न 19.
निम्नलिखित तालिका, श्रम की कुल उत्पाद अनुसूची देती है। तद्नुरूप श्रम का औसत उत्पाद तथा सीमांत उत्पाद अनुसूची निकालिए –

उत्तर:
श्रम की औसत उत्पाद तथा सीमांत उत्पाद अनुसूची –

प्रश्न 20.
मान लीजिए, एक फर्म का उत्पादन फलन है –
q = 5 L\(\frac{1}{2}\) K \(\frac{1}{2}\) , K = 100, L = 100
समीकरण में मान रखने पर,
q = 5(100)^1/2 x (100)^1/2
q = 5\(\sqrt{100}\) x \(\sqrt{100 – 25}\)100
q = 5 x 10 x 10
q = 500
अतः अधिकतम सम्भावित निर्गत 500 इकाइयाँ होंगी।

प्रश्न 21.
लागत फलन की संकल्पनाओं को संक्षिप्त में समझाइए?
उत्तर:
लागत फलन:
लागत तथा निर्गत के बीच में तकनीकी संबंध को लागत फलन कहते हैं, लागत दो प्रकार की होती है –

(अ) अल्पकालीन लागत तथा
(ब) दीर्घकालीन लागत।

(अ) अल्पकालीन लागत:
अल्पकाल में केवल परिवर्ती साधनों को परिवर्तित किया जा सकता है, स्थिर साधनों को नहीं।

अल्पकाल में लागत की विभिन्न संकल्पनाएँ निम्नलिखित हैं –

1. कुल स्थिर लागत – जिन लागतों में उत्पादन की मात्रा में परिवर्तन होने पर कोई प्रभाव नहीं पड़ता।
2. कुल परिवर्ती लागत – जो लागतें उत्पादन की मात्रा में परिवर्तन के साथ – साथ परिवर्तित होती हैं।
3. कुल लागत – किसी वस्तु के उत्पादन की कुल मात्रा पर किया जाने वाला कुल व्यय।
4. औसत स्थिर लागत – कुल स्थिर लागत में कुल उत्पादित इकाइयों का भाग देकर औसत स्थिर लागत प्राप्त की जाती है।
5. औसत परिवर्ती लागत –  कुल परिवर्ती लागत में उत्पादित मात्रा की कुल इकाइयों से भाग देकर प्राप्त होने वाली लागत।
6. अल्पकालीन औसत लागत –  अल्पकालीन औसत लागत की गणना कुल लागत में उत्पादन मात्रा का भाग देकर अथवा औसत स्थिर लागत एवं औसत परिवर्तनशील लागत का योग करके की जा सकती है।
7. अल्पकालीन सीमान्त लागत – उत्पादन की मात्रा में एक इकाई की वृद्धि होने से कुल लागत में जो परिवर्तन आता है, उसे अल्पकालीन सीमान्त लागत कहते हैं।

सूत्र –

(ब) दीर्घकालीन लागत:
दीर्घकालीन लागत में सभी लागत परिवर्तनशील होते हैं। दीर्घकालीन लागत की संकल्पनाएँ निम्नलिखित हैं

1. दीर्घकालीन कुल लागत – कुल उत्पादन पर किये गये समस्त व्ययों के योग को दीर्घकालीन कुल लागत कहते हैं।
2. दीर्घकालीन औसत लागत – दीर्घकालीन कुल लागत में उत्पादन की मात्रा का भाग देकर दीर्घकालीन औसत लागत ज्ञात की जाती है।

सूत्र के रूप में –

प्रश्न 22.
फर्म के संतुलन की मान्यताएँ लिखिए?
उत्तर:
फर्म के संतुलन की मान्यताएँ निम्नांकित हैं –

1. फर्म के सिद्धांत में यह मान लिया जाता है कि उत्पादक का व्यवहार विवेकपूर्ण होता है। प्रत्येक उत्पादक अधिक से अधिक मौद्रिक लाभ अर्जित करने का प्रयत्न करते हैं।
2. उद्यमकर्ता प्रत्येक उपज को उत्पादन की एक दी हुई तकनीकी दशाओं में कम से कम लागत पर पैदा करने का प्रयत्न करता है।
3. एक फर्म द्वारा एक वस्तु का उत्पादन किया जाता है।
4. प्रत्येक उत्पत्ति के साधन की कीमत दी हुई होती है तथा निश्चित होती है।

उत्पादक व्यवहार एवं पूर्ति दीर्घ उत्तरीय प्रश्न

प्रश्न 1.
औसत स्थिर लागत, औसत परिवर्तनशील लागत और औसत कुल लागत को भलीभाँति समझाइए?
उत्तर:
अल्पकालीन औसत लागते तीन प्रकार की होती हैं

(अ) औसत स्थिर लागत:
(ब) औसत परिवर्तनशील लागत एवं
(स) औसत कुल लागत।

(अ) औसत स्थिर लागत:
औसत स्थिर लागत, कुल स्थिर लागत को फर्म के कुल उत्पादन मात्रा से भाग दिये जाने पर प्राप्त होती है। इसे प्रति इकाई लागत भी कहा जाता है। अर्थात्,

अल्पकाल में उत्पादन की मात्रा घटे या बढ़े, कुल स्थिर लागत अपरिवर्तित रहती है। कुल स्थिर लागत में कोई परिवर्तन नहीं होता है, किन्तु उत्पादन के बढ़ने के साथ-साथ औसत स्थिर लागत घटती चली जाती है। इसका प्रमुख कारण यह है कि उत्पादन की मात्रा बढ़ने से कुल स्थिर लागत, उत्पादन की अधिकाधिक इकाइयों में बँटने लगती है। अत: औसत स्थिर लागत क्रमशः घटने लगती है।

(ब) औसत परिवर्तनशील लागत:
कुल परिवर्तनशील लागत को फर्म के कुल उत्पादन की इकाइयों से भाग दिये जाने पर जो भजनफल प्राप्त होता है, उसे ही औसत परिवर्तनशील लागत कहते हैं। इसे प्रति इकाई परिवर्तनशील लागत भी कहते हैं । अर्थात्,

कुल परिवर्तनशील लागत उत्पादन की मात्रा कुल परिवर्तनशील लागत, उत्पादन की मात्रा में वृद्धि किये जाने से हमेशा बढ़ती जाती है। चूंकि अल्पकाल में उत्पादन के क्षेत्र में परिवर्तनशील अनुपातों का नियम’ लागू होता हैं, इसलिए औसत परिवर्तनशील लागत वक्र प्रारम्भिक अवस्था में गिरता है, क्योंकि उत्पादन वृद्धि नियम या लागत ह्रास नियम लागू होता है, किन्तु एक बिन्दु के पश्चात् उत्पत्ति ह्रास नियम या लागत वृद्धि नियम लागू होने के कारण यह तीव्र गति से ऊपर की ओर बढ़ने लगता है।

(स) औसत कुल लागत:
औसत कुल लागत से अभिप्राय, उत्पादन की कुल प्रति इकाई लागत से है। जब उत्पादन की कुल लागत को उत्पादित इकाइयों की संख्या से भाग दिया जाता है, तो औसत कुल लागत प्राप्त होती है। अर्थात

चूँकि कुल लागत, परिवर्तनशील लागत एवं स्थिर लागत का योग होती है, अतः औसत कुल लागत, औसत परिवर्तनशील लागत और औसत स्थिर लागत के योग के बराबर होती है।

प्रश्न 2.
कुल, औसत एवं सीमान्त आय को एक काल्पनिक तालिका तथा रेखाचित्र की सहायता से समझाइए?
उत्तर:
कुल आय, औसत आय तथा सीमान्त आय को निम्नलिखित तालिका की सहायता से स्पष्ट किया जा सकता है
तालिका – कुल आय, औसत आय तथा सीमान्त आय कुल आय औसत आय –

उपर्युक्त तालिका से स्पष्ट है कि अतिरिक्त इकाई बेचने के लिए कीमत में कटौती की जा रही है। जब फर्म, वस्तु की इकाई बेचती है, तो औसत आय, कुल आय और सीमान्त आय सभी ₹ 10 हैं, किन्तु जब वह वस्तु की दो इकाइयाँ बेचती है, तो वस्तु की कीमत में कटौती कर ₹ 9 प्रति इकाई कर देती है, इससे उसकी कुल आय ₹ 18 हो गयी है, जबकि सीमान्त आय 18 – 10 = ₹ 8 है। जब वस्तु की 3 इकाइयाँ बेची जाती हैं, तो कीमत में पुनः कटौती की जाती है। प्रति इकाई कीमत ₹ 8 किये जाने पर कुल आय 8 x 3 = ₹ 24 हो गयी है, जबकि सीमान्त आय 24 – 18 = ₹ 6 हो गयी है।

उपर्युक्त तालिका को निम्न रेखाचित्र की सहायता से भी स्पष्ट किया जा सकता है प्रस्तुत रेखाचित्र में Ox – आधार रेखा पर बेची जाने वाली इकाइयाँ तथा OY – लम्ब रेखा पर आगम को दिखाया गया है।

1. चित्र में TR कुल आय वक्र, AR औसत आय वक्र एवं सीमांत आय वक्र एवं MR सीमान्त आय वक्र है।

2. जब कुल आय वक्र TR,A बिन्दु तक बढ़ता जाता है तो सीमान्त आय MR धनात्मक होती है। चित्र से स्पष्ट है 15 कि MR रेखा C बिन्दु तक धनात्मक है।

3. जब कुल आय वक्र TR, A में B बिन्दु तक घटने आय वक्र – लगती है, तो सीमान्त आय वक्र MR ऋणात्मक हो जाता है। MR वक्र C बिन्दु के पश्चात् ऋणात्मक हो गया है।

4. जब औसत आय वक्र AR गिरने लगता है, तो सीमान्त आय वक्र MR भी गिरने लगता है किन्तु MR वक्र में गिरावट की दर AR में गिरावट की दर से अधिक है। चित्र से स्पष्ट है कि MR वक्र AR वक्र से नीचे है।

5. जब उत्पादन की मात्रा OC हो जाती है, तो इसके उत्पादन बढ़ने पर सीमान्त आय वक्र ऋणात्मक हो जाता है।

6. औसत आय वक्र AR बायें से दायें नीचे की ओर गिरता हुआ वक्र है। इसका अभिप्राय यह है कि वस्तु की अतिरिक्त इकाइयाँ बेचने के लिए मूल्यों में कटौती करनी पड़ती है। मूल्यों में यह कटौती सभी इकाइयों में की जाती है इसलिए AR औसत आय वक्र नीचे की ओर गिरता हुआ है।

7. सीमान्त आय वक्र MR भी बायें से दायें की ओर गिरता हुआ वक्र है, किन्तु सीमान्त आय वक्र में गिरावट की दर अधिक है। इसका कारण यह है कि अतिरिक्त इकाई बेचने के लिए वस्तु के मूल्य में कटौती करनी पड़ती है।

प्रश्न 3.
पूर्ण प्रतियोगिता की दशा में अल्पकाल में किसी वस्तु का मूल्य कैसे निर्धारित होता है? उदाहरण तथा रेखाचित्र द्वारा समझाइए?
उत्तर:
पूर्ण प्रतियोगिता में फर्म का साम्य:
पूर्ण प्रतियोगिता की स्थिति में प्रत्येक फर्म का व्यवहार पूरी तरह विवेकपूर्ण होता है, ऐसा हम मान सकते हैं। ये फर्मे अपने हित में अधिकाधिक लाभ अर्जित करने का प्रयास करती हैं। आधुनिक अर्थशास्त्री किसी वस्तु के मूल्य तथा उत्पादन निर्धारण को फर्म के साम्य के शब्दों में व्यक्त करते हैं:

एक फर्म साम्य की स्थिति में तब होगी जबकि उसके कुल उत्पादन में कोई परिवर्तन नहीं होता। एक फर्म अपने उत्पादन में परिवर्तन तब नहीं करेगी जब उसे अधिकतम लाभ प्राप्त हो रहा हो। अत: “एक फर्म का साम्य तथा एक फर्म द्वारा उत्पादित वस्तु की मात्रा और कीमत निर्धारण दोनों एक ही बात है।”

अल्पकाल में फर्म का साम्य:
अल्पकाल में समय की कमी होती है जिससे पूर्ति की मात्रा को घटायाबढ़ाया नहीं जा सकता, परन्तु माँग में होने वाले परिवर्तनों को रोका भी नहीं जा सकता। अत: अल्पकाल में एक फर्म को लाभ, सामान्य लाभ व हानि हो सकती है।

1. लाभ की स्थिति:
जब वस्तु की माँग अधिक होती है और पूर्ति को अल्पकाल में उसके अनुसार नहीं बढ़ाया जा सकता तो उस समय विशेष पर फर्म को लाभ मिलता है जैसा कि चित्र से स्पष्ट है।

चित्र में E बिन्दु पर MR = MC के है इसलिए E PM बिन्दु अधिकतम लाभ का बिन्दु है। यह फर्म के साम्य की E स्थिति को बताता है अतः
कुल उत्पादन = 0Q
कीमत (AR) = EQ या OP
प्रति इकाई लागत (AC) = RQ
प्रति इकाई लाभ = EQ – RQ = ER
कुल लाभ = प्रति इकाई लाभ x उत्पादन.
= ER x OQ = ER X PE,
(: 0Q = PE) = MPER

2. सामान्य लाभ की स्थिति:
अर्थशास्त्र में सामान्य लाभ उस स्थिति में होता है जब वस्तु की माँग और MC AC पूर्ति आपस में बराबर होती है अर्थात् फर्म द्वारा प्राप्त की गयी कीमत AR से वस्तु की औसत लागत AC पूरी हो जाये (AR = AC) तो वह सामान्य लाभ की स्थिति होगी। जैसा AR = MR कि चित्र से स्पष्ट है। चित्र में E बिन्दु अधिकतम लाभ का बिन्दु है। इस बिन्दु पर OQ कुल उत्पादन है, वस्तु की प्रति इकाई कीमत EQया OP है तथा प्रति इकाई लागत भी EQ है, अतः स्पष्ट है कि फर्म को केवल सामान्य लाभ ही प्राप्त हो रहा है।

3. हानि की स्थिति:
उत्पादन में कभी – कभी अल्पकाल में ऐसी स्थिति भी उत्पन्न हो सकती है जबकि फर्म को हानि का सामना करना पड़े, अर्थात् उसकी औसत आय (AR) की तुलना में औसत लागत (AC) अधिक हो। इस स्थिति को चित्र की सहायता से समझा जा सकता है। चित्र में MC, MR को नीचे से काटती है। E बिन्दु साम्य PM बिन्दु है। इस बिन्दु पर OQ कुल उत्पादन है, वस्तु की प्रति ल इकाई कीमत EQ या OP है, प्रति इकाई लागत RQ तथा। प्रति इकाई हानि (RQ – EQ) = RE है। कुल = RE x MR.

प्रश्न 4.
औसत लागत और सीमान्त लागत में संबंध को एक काल्पनिक तालिका एवं रेखाचित्र की सहायता से स्पष्ट कीजिए?
अथवा
औसत लागत तथा सीमांत लागत में क्या संबंध है? रेखाचित्र की सहायता से समझाइये?
उत्तर:
औसत लागत और सीमान्त लागत के संबंध को निम्नलिखित तालिका एवं रेखाचित्र की सहायता से स्पष्ट किया जा सकता है –
तालिका – कुल, औसत व सीमान्त लागत –

प्रस्तुत रेखाचित्र में OX – आधार रेखा पर उत्पादन की मात्रा तथा OY – लम्ब रेखा पर लागत को दिखाया गया है। AC औसत लागत वक्र एवं MC सीमान्त लागत वक्र है। दोनों का स्वरूप अंग्रेजी अक्षर ‘U’ के समान है, क्योंकि उत्पादन के क्षेत्र में परिवर्तनशील अनुपातों। का नियम लागू होता है। Pबिन्दु औसत लागत वक्र का न्यूनतम बिन्दु। है। सीमान्त लागत वक्र MC, औसत लागत वक्र AC को इसी न्यूनतम बिन्दु P पर नीचे से काटता है एवं कटाव बिन्दु के ऊपर तेजी से बढ़ने। लगता है। P बिन्दु के पूर्व जब औसत लागत वक्र AC ऊपर से नीचे उत्पादन की मात्रा की ओर गिर रहा है। चित्र से स्पष्ट है कि सीमान्त लागत वक्र MC औसत लागत वक्र AC से नीचे है। P बिन्दु के पश्चात् जब औसत लागत वक्र AC की ओर बढ़ने लगता है, तो सीमान्त लागत वक्र MC भी बढ़ने लगता है, किन्तु सीमान्त लागत वक्र में वृद्धि की दर अधिक है।

प्रश्न 5.
उत्पादन लागत से आप क्या समझते हैं? कुल लागत, स्थिर लागत तथा परिवर्तनशील लागत का अर्थ समझाइए?
उत्तर:
“अर्थशास्त्र में उत्पादन लागत का अर्थ उन सभी भुगतानों से है जो उत्पादन दर व्यय किये गये हैं। भले ही इसके उत्पादक द्वारा प्रदान की गई पूँजी, भूमि, श्रम आदि सेवाओं का पुरस्कार भी शामिल हो। साहसी का सामान्य लाभ भी इसमें सम्मिलित होता है। उत्पादन लागत में न केवल वित्तीय व्यय, बल्कि समय, सेवा तथा शक्ति के रूप में किये गये व्यय को भी सम्मिलित किया जाता है।

कुल लागत:
किसी फर्म को उत्पादन की एक निश्चित मात्रा उत्पादित करने के लिए जो कुल व्यय करना पड़ता है, उसे फर्म की कुल लागत कहा जाता है। उत्पादन में वृद्धि के साथ – साथ कुल लागतों में वृद्धि होती जाती है। कुल लागतों में सामान्यतः दो प्रकार की लागतें सम्मिलित की जाती हैं –

1. स्थिर या पूरक लागत तथा
2. परिवर्तनशील या प्रमुख लागत

अर्थात्
कुल लागत = स्थिर लागत + परिवर्तनशील लागत।

1. स्थिर या पूरक लागत:
स्थिर लागत से तात्पर्य, उत्पत्ति के स्थिर साधनों पर किये जाने वाले व्यय से होता है। उत्पत्ति के स्थिर साधन ऐसे साधनों को कहा जाता है जिन्हें अल्पकाल में घटाया या बढ़ाया नहीं जा सकता, वे उत्पत्ति के स्थिर साधन कहलाते हैं। ऐसे साधनों पर किया जाने वाला व्यय उत्पादन के सभी स्तरों पर समान रहता है। यदि किसी समय पर उत्पादने शून्य हो जाये, तो भी स्थिर लागत बनी रहेगी। यही कारण है कि स्थिर लागतों को पूरक लागतें, ऊपरी लागते, सामान्य लागतें एवं अप्रत्यक्ष लागतें भी कहते हैं।

स्थिर लागतों के अन्तर्गत निम्नलिखित लागतों को सम्मिलित किया जाता है –

1. फर्म की बिल्डिंग का किराया
2. स्थिर पूँजी एवं दीर्घकालीन ऋण पर ब्याज
3. बीमा शुल्क
4. मशीनों का घिसावट व्यय
5. प्रशासनिक ब्याज, जैसे – प्रबन्धकों एवं कार्यालयों के कर्मचारियों के वेतन
6. विद्युत् व्यय
7. व्यावसायिक कर, लाइसेंस फीस
8. फर्म के स्वामी के अवसर लागतों एवं सामान्य लाभ को भी सम्मिलित किया जाता है।

2. परिवर्तनशील या प्रमुख लागत:
परिवर्तनशील लागतों से अभिप्राय, ऐसे व्ययों से है, जो उत्पत्ति के परिवर्तनशील साधनों पर किये जाते हैं। उत्पत्ति के परिवर्तनशील साधन ऐसे साधनों को कहा जाता है, जिन्हें उत्पादन में परिवर्तन होने पर परिवर्तन करना पड़ता है। इस प्रकार, परिवर्तनशील लागतों से तात्पर्य, ऐसी लागतों से है, जिनमें उत्पादन में परिवर्तन होने पर परिवर्तन हो जाता है। परिवर्तनशील लागत को प्रमुख लागत एवं प्रत्यक्ष लागत भी कहा जाता है।

अल्पकालीन परिवर्तनशील लागतों में निम्न लागतें सम्मिलित की जाती हैं –

1. कच्चे माल का मूल्य
2. श्रमिकों की मजदूरी
3. ईंधन एवं विद्युत् शक्ति की लागते
4. परिवहन लागत
5. उत्पादन कर एवं बिक्री कर इत्यादि।

इस प्रकार स्पष्ट है कि कुल लागत, स्थिर लागत एवं कुल परिवर्तनशील लागत का योग होता है।

प्रश्न 6.
फर्म के संतुलन का क्या अर्थ है? फर्म के संतुलन की विशेषताओं को स्पष्ट कीजिये?
उत्तर:
फर्म के साम्य या संतुलन से आशय-फर्म के संतुलन से आशय उस अवस्था से है जिसमें परिवर्तन की अनुपस्थिति दृष्टिगोचर होती है। फर्म के साम्य के आधार पर किसी फर्म के द्वारा वस्तु के मूल्य निर्धारण एवं उत्पादन की मात्रा का निर्धारण किया जाता है साम्यावस्था में उत्पादन की मात्रा में कमी या वृद्धि से फर्म का कोई सारोकार नहीं होता है। यही कारण है कि फर्म को इस अवस्था में अधिकतम लाभ प्राप्त होता है। अतएव वह बिंदु जिस पर फर्म को अधिकतम मौद्रिक लाभ प्राप्त हो उसे फर्म का संतुलन कहते हैं। जहाँ TRTC अधिकतम हो।

फर्म के संतुलन की विशेषताएँ – फर्म के संतुलन की अवस्था की विशेषताएँ निम्नलिखित हैं –

1. वस्तु की कीमत या उत्पादन की मात्रा में कोई परिवर्तन नहीं:
संतुलन की स्थिति में फर्म अपनी कीमत या वस्तु के उत्पादन की मात्रा में किसी भी प्रकार की कोई परिवर्तन नहीं करती है अर्थात् परिवर्तन की अनुपस्थिति रहती है।

2. अधिकतम लाभ प्राप्त करना:
एक फर्म अपने संतुलन की स्थिति में अधिकतम लाभ प्राप्त करती है। अत: वह किसी भी प्रकार का जोखिम नहीं उठाना चाहती है।

3. फर्म की उत्पादन लागत न्यूनतम होना:
फर्म के संतुलन की स्थिति में फर्म न्यूनतम लागत पर उत्पादन को संभव बनाती है। उत्पादन लागत न्यूनतम हो जाने से लाभ बढ़ जाता है।

4. कुल लागत एवं कुल आगम तथा सीमांत विश्लेषण रीति का प्रयोग:
फर्म की साम्यावस्था कुल लागत एवं कुल आगम तथा सीमांत विश्लेषण रीति का प्रयोग करके प्राप्त की जा सकती है। एक फर्म के साम्य में उत्पादित वस्तु की मात्रा एवं कीमत निर्धारण में कोई अन्तर नहीं है।

प्रश्न 7.
उत्पादन फलन को परिभाषित कीजिए।पैमाने के वर्धमान, स्थिर तथा ह्रासमान प्रतिफल को समझाइए?
उत्तर:
उत्पादन फलन – यह उत्पादन के आगतों तथा अंतिम उत्पाद के बीच तकनीकी संबंध को बताता है।
q= f(x₁x₂)
यहाँ = उत्पादन की मात्रा, x₁ व x₂, कारक 1 व 2
पैमाने के प्रतिफल:
दीर्घकाल में उत्पादन के साधनों के समानुपात में बदलने से उत्पादन पर जो प्रभाव पड़ता है, वह पैमाने के प्रतिफल कहलाते हैं। यह दीर्घकाल से संबंधित है तथा सभी आगत परिवर्तनीय होते हैं।
पैमाने के प्रतिफल के तीन निम्नलिखित प्रकार हैं –

पैमाने के बढ़ते प्रतिफल की अवस्था:
जब सभी आगतों को एक ही अनुपात में बढ़ाने के फलस्वरूप उत्पादन में, आगतों में वृद्धि की अपेक्षा, अधिक अनुपात में वृद्धि होती है, तो। इस स्थिति को पैमाने के बढ़ते प्रतिफल की अवस्था कहा जाता है, जैसेमाना कि आगतों में 10% की वृद्धि करने पर उत्पादन में 12% की वृद्धि हो, ” तो यह पैमाने के बढ़ते प्रतिफल कहलाएँगे।

पैमाने के स्थिर प्रतिफल की अवस्था:
जब सभी आगतों में एक निश्चित अनुपात में वृद्धि करने के फलस्वरूप उत्पादन में भी उसी अनुपात में वृद्धि होती है, जिस अनुपात में आगतों में वृद्धि की गई थी। तो इसे पैमाने के स्थिर प्रतिफल की अवस्था कहते, उपरोक्त चित्रानुसार OP पैमाने की रेखा है। साधन X व Y की पहली इकाइयों पर उत्पादन 100 इकाइयों का था, जबकि दोनों इकाइयों की मात्रा 300 बढ़ाकर 2 – 2 करने पर उत्पादन 200 तथा 3 – 3 करने पर उत्पादन 300 इकाइयाँ । X – 200 हो जाती हैं। अत: AB = BC, यहाँ यह स्पष्ट है कि उत्पादक को पैमाने के। स्थिर प्रतिफल प्राप्त हो रहे हैं।

पैमाने के घटते प्रतिफल की अवस्था:
जब सभी आगतों में एक निश्चित अनुपात में वृद्धि के परिणामस्वरूप उत्पादन में वृद्धि, आगतों में की गई आनुपातिक वृद्धि की। अपेक्षा कम होती है, तो इस स्थिति को पैमाने के घटते हुए प्रतिफल की अवस्था कहा जाता है, जैसे – माना कि आगतों में 10% की वृद्धि की जाती है। इसके परिणामस्वरूप उत्पादन में 8% की वृद्धि होती है, तो इसे पैमाने के घटते प्रतिफल की अवस्था कहा जायेगा। उपरोक्त चित्रानुसार, x + y उत्पादन के साधन मिलकर पहले 100 इकाइयाँ उत्पादित करते हैं। फिर 2x + 2y मिलकर 180 इकाइयाँ उत्पादित करते हैं तथा 3x + 3y मिलकर 240 इकाइयाँ।

अतः इस प्रकार उत्पत्ति के साधनों की मात्रा दुगुनी तथा तिगुनी होने पर भी उत्पादन दुगुना या तिगुना न होकर कम बढ़ता है। अत: E बिन्दु तक पैमाने के घटते हुए प्रतिफल की प्राप्ति हो रही है, क्योंकि DE > CD > BC > AB है।

प्रश्न 8.
निम्नलिखित तालिका, श्रम का सीमांत उत्पादन अनुसूची देती है। यह भी दिया गया है कि श्रम का कुल उत्पाद शून्य है। प्रयोग के शून्य स्तर पर श्रम के कुल उत्पाद तथा औसत उत्पाद अनुसूची की गणना कीजिए?

उत्तर:
श्रम की कुल उत्पाद तथा औसत उत्पाद अनुसूची –

प्रश्न 9.
एक फर्म की अल्पकालीन सीमांत लागत अनुसूची निम्नलिखित में दी गयी है। फर्म की स्थिर लागत ₹ 100 है। फर्म के कुल परिवर्ती लागत, कुल लागत, औसत परिवर्ती लागत तथा अल्पकालीन औसत लागत अनुसूची निकालिए?

उत्तर:
फर्म की अन्य अनुसूची निम्नलिखित हैं –

प्रश्न 10.
मान लीजिए, एक फर्म का उत्पादन फलन है?
q= 2L² K² 
अधिकतम संभावित निर्गत ज्ञात कीजिए, जिसका फर्म उत्पादन कर सकती है, 5 इकाइयाँ L तथा 2 इकाइयाँ K द्वारा अधिकतम संभावित निर्गत क्या है, जिसका फर्म उत्पादन कर सकती है। शून्य इकाई L तथा 10 इकाई K द्वारा?
हल:
दिया है –
q = 2² K²
जहाँ L = 5,
K = 2
समीकरण में मान रखने पर,
q = 2(5)² x (2)²
q = 2(25)(4)
q = 200 इकाइयाँ
अत: अधिकतम सम्भावित निर्गत (उत्पादन) 200 इकाइयाँ होंगी। दूसरी स्थिति में, दिया है
L = 0, K = 10 समीकरण में मान रखने पर,
q = 2(0) x (10) या
q = 2 x 0 x 100
q = 0
अतः अधिकतम संभावित निर्गत (उत्पादन) शून्य होगा।

प्रश्न 11.
एक फर्म के लिए शून्य इकाई L तथा 10 इकाइयाँ K द्वारा अधिकतम संभावित निर्गत निकालिए, जब इसका उत्पादन फलन है?
q= 5L + 2K.
हल:
दिया है
q = 5L + 2K
L = 0, K = 10
समीकरण में मान रखने पर,
q = 5(0) + 2(10) या
q = 0 + 20 या
q = 20
अतः अधिकतम संभावित उत्पादन 20 इकाइयाँ होंगी।

MP Board Class 12th Economics Important Questions

MP Board Class 12th Business Studies Important Questions Chapter 8 Controlling

Controlling Important Questions

Controlling Objective Type Questions

Question 1.
Choose the correct answer :

Question 1.
Controlling is which level of management function :
(a) First
(b) Second
(c) Middle
(d) Last
Answer:
(d) Last

Question 2.
Control is related to :
(a) Result
(b) Work
(c) Effects
(d) All the above.
Answer:
(a) Result

Question 3.
Planning and Control are :
(a) Completely different
(b) Adverse to each other
(c) Similar to each other
(d) Interrelated activities.
Answer:
(d) Interrelated activities.

Question 4.
Out of the following which is not a technique of control:
(a) Exceptional control
(b) Budgetary control
(c) Cost control
(d) Punishable control.
Answer:
(d) Punishable control

Question 5.
Control is:
(a) Negative process
(d) Positive process
(c) Re-formative process
(d) None of these.
Answer:
(c) Re-formative process

Question 6.
What is the first step of controlling:
(a) Budget preparation
(b) To lay down proportion
(c) Evaluation of performance
(d) Identification of deviations.
Answer:
(a) Budget preparation

Question 7.
What is the aim of control:
(a) To estimate production
(b) Arrangement of financial resources
(c) Evaluation of actual performance
(d) All the above.
Answer:
(c) Evaluation of actual performance

Question 8.
Control Process is :
(a) Continuous
(b) Primary
(c) Planning
(d) Essential.
Answer:
(a) Continuous

Question 2.
Fill in the blanks :

1. The work of……………….. is to see whether the works are in conformity to plans or not.
2. ………………..is forward looking……………….. and is backward looking.
3. In control process it is……………….. that all the work is processing/done as per plans.
4. Effective control is related to ………………..
5. In control standard work is compared with………………..
6. ………………..steps are taken in controlling process.
7. In control process……………….. points are marked.
8. Control is useful in controlling ………………..
9. Control process of business enterprise is helpful for……………….. operations of business.

Answer:

1. Control
2. Planning, Controlling
3. Evaluating test
4. Results
5. Actual work,
6. Corrective
7. Weak
8. Wastage
9. Skilled.

Question 3.
Write the answer in one word/sentence :

1. In controlling actual performance is compared with.
2. Name the remedial measures taken to correct deviations in process of control.
3. Write the technique of control.
4. Name the technique of control in which the exceptional works are only informed to managers ?
5. Which technique of control is adopted for departments related with finance ?
6. To determine the work standard is which step of control ?
7. Write one advantage of control by exception.
8. What is Budgeting ?
9. What do you mean by control through budgeting ?
10. On what function of management control depends ?

Answer:

1. Standard performance
2. Corrective action
3. Auditing
4. Exceptional control
5. Auditing
6. To determine the work standard is the 1st step of control
7. By control by exception time is saved
8. Budgeting is a process by which budget is controlled.
9. by controlling through budgeting we mean the comparison between the budget provision and the actual goals set
10. control depends on planing

Question 4.
Write true or false :

1. Control is the primary function of management.
2. In control actual performance is compared with standard performance.
3. Control is the last function of management.
4. Control provides security from risk.
5. Control does not need at all levels of management.
6. Deviation is always positive.
7. Control should be rigid.
8. Control is both positive and negative.
9. Control is a continuous process.
10. Control can be done for present and future activities only.

Answer:

1. True
2. True
3. True
4. True
5. False
6. False
7. False
8. True
9. False
10. True.

Question 5.
Match the columns :

Answers:

1. (e)
2. (c)
3. (b)
4. (a)
5. (d)
6. (g)
7. (f)
8. (j)
9. (h)
10. (i)

Controlling Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
“Planning is of no use without control.” Explain.
Answer:
Planning and controlling both are interdependent and interrelated activities. They are complementary and supplementary to each other.
The close relationship between planning and controlling can be justified on the following points:

1. Planning is the origin of controlling
2. Both are interrelated
3. Planning is theoretical whereas controlling is practical.

Question 2.
What is control by exception ?
Answer:
A good control system should focus managerial attention on exceptional deviations. This is called ‘Control by exception’. It means if things are going smoothly, management should not interfere. Management should interfere only in exceptional circumstances.

Question 3.
Why is control incomplete without planning ?
Answer:
Control is fully dependent upon planning because it is the work of controlling to see whether the work is in conformity to plans or not, if not give directions for correction.

Question 4.
What is deviation in control ?
Answer:
The difference between actual performance and standard performance is deviation in control.

Question 5.
Ravi Ltd. wants to produce stapler pins in huge quantity. As per the policy of the company 44% of the production can be spoiled. Since last 5 lots 8 to 10% production is spoiled. The reason is the repair in the machine. What will be your suggestion for corrective action ?
Answer:
Current machine repair must be monitored or new machine must be purchased.

Question 6.
Why is control a blank exercise without planning ?
Answer:
Control is fully dependent upon planning because it is the work of controlling to see whether the work is in conformity to plans or not, if not give directions for correction.

Question 7.
What is feedback in control ?
Answer:
A feedback is a common and powerful tool of control process. It helps to take the system output into consideration, which enables the system to adjust the performance by corrective actions.

Question 8.
Define control.
Answer:
Definitions : According to Henri Fayol, “In an undertaking, control consists in verifying whether everything occurs in conformity with the plan adopted, the instructions issued and the principles established.”

Question 9.
Why do you need control ?
Answer:
In the current scenario of industrial revolution technological advancement, market and taste of customers are frequently changing, In this era the management has to work efficiently and effectively to meet the qualitative and quantitative standards. Therefore, control is must.

Question 10.
What is physical standard proportion ?
Answer:
Physical standard proportion includes number of tasks, labour, hours and other physical units.

Question 11.
What is monetary standard proportion ?
Answer:
Monetary standard proportion includes per unit cost, per unit sale, labour expenses and distribution expenses etc.

Question 12,
What do you mean by budget ?
Answer:
A budget is a financial plan for a defined period of time, usually a year, it may also include planned sales, volumes and revenues, resource quantities, cost and expenses, assets, liabilities and cash flows.

Question 13.
How does control improves the future plans ?
Answer:
Control improves future plans by suggestions from past experiences.

Question 14.
What is Budgetary control ?
Answer:
Budgets are quantitative statements of objectives, plans and programmed of an organization. Budgetary control regulates, all these important aspects for better functioning

Question 15.
How are planning and control interrelated and how does they provide to each other ?
Answer:
Relationship Between Planning and Control: Planning and controlling both are interdependent and interrelated activities. They are complementary and supplementary to each other.
The close relationship between planning and controlling can be justified on the following points:

1. Planning is the origin of controlling
2. Both are interrelated
3. Planning is theoretical whereas controlling is practical
4. Planning is meaningless without controlling and controlling is blind without planning
5. Controlling ensures realizing planned goals efficiently and provides basis for improvement in future plans
6. Planning is looking ahead and controlling is looking back.

Interrelation between planning and controlling can be understood from the following

Question 16.
What do you understand by negative and positive deviation ?
Answer:
Negative Deviation : This occurs when the actual performance is less than the standard preformance.
Positive Deviation : This occurs when the actual performance is more than the standard performance.

Question 17.
How can control helpful to curtail the dishonest attitude of employees ?
Answer:
Controls can keep constant or steady watch on those employees and can be helpful to curtail dishonest behavior of employees.

Question 18.
Write one point of difference between planning and control.
Answer:
Planning is forward looking and controlling is backward looking.

Question 19.
Give two examples of qualitative standards in the control process.
Answer:

1. Relationship with employees
2. Ability of management.

Question 20.
Why should proportion/standard flexible and can be changed anytime ?
Answer:
The internal and external environment keeps changes very frequently so the standards must be flexible.

Question 21.
What is the last step of process of control ?
Answer:
Taking corrective action in the last step of process of control.

Question 22.
What do you mean by management information mechanism ?
Answer:
Management information mechanism is a technique which provide information and assistance to managerial decisions.

Question 23.
“Control is universal.” Explain why ?
Answer:
Control is universal because it is found at all levels of management. Controlling work is neither related to top level nor to lower level but it is required at all levels. In all organizations (Religious, Social, Political etc.) the need of control is felt.

Question 24.
Why is it said that planning is essential for control ?
Answer:
Determination and establishing standards are the first step of control. The object
of establishing standard is to know what consideration are expected from any work and how and through whom the consideration will be achieved. For all this planning is essential.

Question 25.
What do you mean by control ?
Answer:
Control is related to checking whether everything occurs in conformity with the standards stipulated in the plan. It measures and evaluates performance and brings to light the variations if any.

Question 26.
Write names of any four specific methods of control.
Answer:
The four methods are :

1. Budget control
2. Cost control
3. Production control
4. Quality control
5. Material control.

Question 27.
What are the general methods of control ?
Answer:
General methods of control:

1. Actual inspection
2. Control through auditing
3. Control through motivation
4. By sending notices
5. Return on investment.

Question 28.
Why is control backward looking ?
Answer:
Control is backward looking because in control we see the performance backward which is already performed by the workers and its comparison is done through plan

Question 29.
What is the relation between planning and controlling ?
Answer:
Planning and controlling both are interdependent and interrelated activities. They are complementary and supplementary to each other.
The close relationship between planning and controlling can be justified on the following points :

1. Planning is the origin of controlling.
2. Both are interrelated.
3. Planning is theoretical whereas controlling is practical.

Question 30.
What is control through example ?
Answer:
Under this system of control, the manager himself places an example before his employees by being punctual, working for specific period, good behavior etc. This method is very effective.

Question 31.
Explain the cost control.
Answer:
By exercising cost control as per unit production cost can be ascertained and can find out the method of minimizing the cost in future so as to complete with the other items in the market, e.g., cost raw material, labour cost, direct expenses and indirect expenses etc.

Question 32.
What does control ensure ?
Answer:
Control ensures whether the actual work is going on according to the targets ! determined or not.

Question 33.
How is control full of objectives ?
Answer:
Control is full of objectives because it ensures whether the predetermined objectives of organizations are fulfilled or not by effective and efficient utilization of resources.

Controlling Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Explain two aspects of control.
Answer:
The two aspects of control are :

1. Political control
2. Managerial control

1. Political control means to inspect the impact and implementation of rules and plans of the organization.
2. Managerial control means to focus on the managerial and other activities of the organization.

Question 2.
What are points that should be kept in mind while preparing standards/proportion ?
Answer:

1. Standards must be capable of measuring,
2. Standard should be such which can be achieved with some efforts.
3. Standards should be easy and clear.
4. Standards must be flexible.
5. While setting standards the deviation limits must be specified.

Question 3.
Explain, briefly, the features of a good control system.
Answer:
A good control system must fulfill the following requirements :

1. Suitability: The control system should be appropriate to the nature and need of the organization. A control system that is good to small organization may be inadequate for a big organization.

2. Objectivity : The control system should focus on the objectives of the organization. The determination of standard measurement of performance and corrective actions thereby, should be objective and impersonal. Subjective and arbitrary control cannot be effective. .

3. Simplicity: A good control system should be clear, easy to understand and operate. Unless the control system is understood fully by those responsible for its operation, it cannot be successful.

4. Economical: A good control system is one which is economical in terms of time and money. Small units may not be able to afford huge cost of control.

5. Flexible : A good control system must be flexible because business conditions are not stable. If the system of control can work only on the basis of one specific plan, it becomes useless if the plan breaks down and another has to be substituted. According to Theo Haimann, “A good control system must keep pace with continuously changing pattern of a dynamic business world. ”

6. Promptness : The control system should be such that actual result and all deviations from standards are quickly reported to the concerned officers. Delay in reporting will make control ineffective. Speed is also required in initiating the corrective actions.

Question 4.
Explain the meaning of control process.
Answer:
Control is a universal and important function of management. It is the power to direct, order or restrain. Managerial control seeks to achieve conformity to plan as closely as possible. It is applied to all activities of the organization like purchases, sales, finance, marketing, personnel management etc.

Meaning: Control is the most important element of management. It is concerned with verifying whether actions are in conformity with the standard stipulated in the plan. It measures and evaluates performance and brings to light the variations, if any, for the purpose of necessary action by the management and to prevent the recurrence of such variations in future. Controlling as a function of management means the measurement and correction of performance of activities of subordinates in order to make sure that enterprise objectives and plans devised to attain them are accomplished.

Question 5.
How should a newly appointed foreman should manage the process of control ?
Answer:
A newly appointed foreman should manage the process of control:

1. Setting of Standard/Proportion.
2. Measurement of performance.
3. Comparison of actual performance with standard performance:
4. Analysis of deviation.

Question 6.
The ideal control system inspects every aspect of performance. Explain.
Answer:
An ideal control system is one which focuses on important aspect of performance. There may be thousands of jobs related to control but the prime focus must be control on the prime aspects as it is difficult to control all. If we keep controlling all the aspects then we face the problem of control delay, increase in cost and the important points are neglected.

Question 7.
Write the advantages of control by exception.
Answer:
Advantages of control by exception :

1. It concentrates attention of managers towards important things.
2. It differentiates between the important and ordinary problems.
3. It saves the efforts of managers.
4. There is no wastage of time and energy of managers in solving daily problems.

Question 8.
What do you mean by control ? How does control stimulates action ?
Answer:
Meaning of control:Control is related to checking whether everything occurs in conformity with the standards stipulated in the plan. It measures and evaluates performance and brings to light the variations if any

Control stimulate action : An effective control system stimulates action by spotting the variations from the original plan and highlighting them for the people who can set things right. Control helps in detecting the deviation and their causes. It enables the management to act quickly.

Question 9.
What things should be kept in mind while determine standards ?
Answer:
While determining standards following things should be kept in mind :

1. Standard should be accurate.
2. Standard should be lawful.
3. Determined standard should be able to acquire.
4. Standard should be according to planning.
5. Standard should be such which can be measured.

Question 10.
Explain the setting up standards as first step of control.
Answer:
Determination and establishment of standards are the first step of control. The object of establishing standard is to know what consideration are expected from any work and how and through whom the consideration will be achieved. What will be different levels of activating in work and what will be the expenditure ? For all this, a policy is prepared, which is called planning, without planning and policies, work cannot be estimated and standards cannot be established. In this way, for control planning is important.

Question 11.
Controlling is a Dynamic Process”. How its help in achieving the objectives ?
Answer:
Controlling involves view of standard as well a corrective action which may lead to changes in other managerial functions. The control system has to be adapted to the changing conditions and requirement of organization.

Controlling ensures that results of operations conform as closely as possible, to the predetermined objectives. Every organization draw up a plan of action at periodical intervals. The plan indicates the expected behavior and activities of people working in different units of the organization. By keeping a close watch over performance at various levels, controlling tries to correct the deviation between actual results and desired results. Mistakes are located promptly and appropriate remedial actions are initiated. Thus, it helps in achieving the objectives laid down in the plan of action.

Question 12.
Define Net Working Capital.
Answer:
Net Working Capital: It represents the excess of current assets over current liabilities. Current assets include cash in hand, cash at bank, stock, debtors, bills receivables etc. while current liabilities consists of accounts payable, outstanding bills payable, bank overdraft, and outstanding expenses etc. Net working capital is a qualitative concept and it reveals the soundness of current financial position. Working capital may be classified as follows:

1. Permanent or regular working capital
2. Temporary or variable working capital
3. Seasonal working capital and
4. Special working capital.

Controlling Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1
Describe the salient features of control.
Or
Explain main characteristics of control.
Answer:

1. Control is a management function : Controlling work is done by the line officer and line officer may take advice and help from different experts and colleagues.

2. At all levels of management: Controlling work is neither related to top level nor to the lower level but it is required at all levels. At top level, controlling work is done by the chief manager and at the lower level foreman or other officer does the work of control.

3. Continuous process : Control is a regular activity, required at all levels. It is not an activity in isolation. The management has to be continuously vigilant to ensure that the management is in the right track. If control is withdrawn midway, then it may affect performance and subsequently, the efficiency of the organization.

4. Control is futuristic or Forward looking : The object of control is to wipe away present errors and defects so that no hindrance or defect may arise in future. Necessary steps are to be taken for this before hand. Whatever, faults have occurred in the past, should be examined and care is taken so that it should not be repeated in future.

Question 2.
“Planning and controlling are interrelated.” Explain.
Answer:
Relationship Between Planning and Control: Planning and controlling both are interdependent and interrelated activities. They are complementary and supplementary to each other.
The close relationship between planning and controlling can be justified on the following points:

1. Planning is the origin of controlling
2. Both are interrelated
3. Planning is theoretical whereas controlling is practical
4. Planning is meaningless without controlling and controlling is blind without planning
5. Controlling ensures realizing planned goals efficiently and provides basis for improvement in future plans
6. Planning is looking ahead and controlling is looking back.

Interrelation between planning and controlling can be understood from the following

1. Controlling without planning is blind: Control uses the standards of performance provided by planning as a base of evaluation and comparison.

2. Planning without controlling is meaningless : Controlling monitors the progress of plans implemented, discovers deviation and initiates corrective measures to ensure that activities conform to plans.

3. Planning seeks consistent, integrated and articulated programmed while controlling seeks to compel events to conform to plans.

4. Planning involves thinking and analysis to prescribe and appropriate course of action while controlling checks it prescribed decisions have been translated into desired action and verifies their accuracy and objectivity.

Conclusion : To conclude we can say that planning based on facts makes controlling easier and effective and controlling improves future planning. Therefore, planning is a prerequisite for controlling and the two are inseparable twins of management.

Question 3.
Explain the limitations of control.
Answer:
Though control is essential in every organization, it does suffer from limitations. The following are the main limitations :

1. External factors : Though an effective external control is possible, the management virtually cannot exercise any control over external factors such as government policies, technological changes etc. All these affect planning.

2. Expensive: Control requires deputation of large personnel at various level to analyse deviations. This become an expensive affair for small organization.

3. Problems in fixing standards : There are various areas in management like employee morale, R & D, customer reactions, human relations etc. where standards for performance cannot be set in quantitative terms. In the absence of standards, control is ineffective.

4. Resistance : It is an accepted fact that control techniques are always looked upon as an interference in work by subordinates. Hence, full cooperation for effective control may not be obtained from the subordinates.Thus, these are some of the limitations of control

Question 4.
What are the types of standard ?
Answer:
Types of standard : Standards can be divided into the following parts :

1. Physical standard : In it, determination of work is made about per hour, per day, per week, per unit etc.

2. Monetary standard : In it, standard is determined about per unit labor cost, per unit material cost, per unit factory cost. These standards can be measured in money.

3. Tangible standard : In it, standard is determined about per day production cost, per article production cost, per day production quantity and standard of fixed units.

4. Intangible standard : In it, to increase the morale of employees, to increase efficiency and to appreciate good work etc. are determined. Intangible standards cannot be measured in quantity. It can be felt by experience.

5. Revenue standard : In it, such standards are included which can be measured in terms of sales value, e.g., for transport company, income per passenger.

6. Capital standard : The standard capital ratio is two units of capital to one unit of borrowing. Standard of it in capital expenditures are determined for this different ratios are
determined as current ratio, ratio of loan with the owners capital etc. The capital standard should be increased or decreased looking to the size, nature of business.

Question 5.
What are various core areas of control and its methods ?
Answer:
The core areas of control are :

1. Policy control: Real policy and control policy always vary which leads to deviation.
2. Employee control: Management gets divided into sub-section management departments to have control on employees.
3. Wage and salary control: Management controls the wage and salary of employees through the evaluation of their work.
4. Capital control : The prime task of control is to monitor whether the usage of capital is for achieving the goal or not. If not then corrective measures are taken.
5. Cost control: Control on various production departments to check and have optimum utilization of resources results in cost control.
6. Inventory control: In production sufficient inventory must be available. There usage, purchase and storage must be properly monitor and corrective actions must be taken.
7. Comprehensive control: Under this all the plans are collectively.

Question 6.
What are the various principles of control ?
Answer:
The various principles of control are :

1. Principle of security of goal: Control process should be such which understands the difference between plans and actual deviation of tasks and take corrective actions.
2. Principal of ability: Control process should be such which should be in expensive and should also take care of subordinates without hampering the image and confidence of management.
3. Principle of priority : Control process should prioritize the activities and should focus on the important activities. If there is any deviation then they must be rectified.
4. Principle of responsibility : Control is the responsibility of management and it cannot be taken lightly.
5. Principle of flexibility : Control process must have lot of flexibility to amend easily if need be.
6. Principle of revaluation : For effective control the control process must evaluated at regular intervals to incorporate the changing situations.

Question 7.
What are the essential factors of effective control system ?
Answer:
Essential Factors of Efficient Control System : Following are the essential factors of efficient control system:

1. Suitability : The control system must suit the requirements of an organization. It should be designed after considering the nature, size and functions of organization.

2. Flexibility : The control system should have the flexibility to adjust itself to the changing requirements of the organization. It should not be very rigid and strict.

3. Simple and understandable : The controlling system must be simple and easily understandable to the officials and employees of organization. Controlling system can be effectively applied if it is simple and understandable.

4. Economical: Controlling system should be economical with regard to time and money. It should be within the means of the enterprises.

5. Efficient control techniques: An effective and efficient control system should use efficient control techniques. Through these techniques the uncertainties in business can be easily tackled

Question 8.
Explain the methods of control.
Answer:
(A) General methods :

1. Actual inspection : By actual inspection we mean actual inspection of worker’s performance by taking rounds, visiting the departments.

2. Control through auditing : Internal or external auditing of certain accounts and books are necessary. By auditing we mean stock in going and incoming inventory, fixed assets books, cost accounting etc.

3. Control through motivation : This method is the best method of control. By motivating the labour, the sincere labour is encouraged to do more and more work.

4. By sending notices: Management can be controlled by sending notices, circulars, orders to subordinates for coordinating their work and establishing control thereby.

5. Return on investment (ROI): Return on investment is another wily used management control method of all. It is aimed of measuring profit as return on the capital employed for production. It uses a number of financial variables to arrive at the return on investment.

6. Control by policies : Policies are also one of the sources of control. Policies are
pre-determined for performance of activities. The employees work according to these policies. By these policies the employees get full opportunity to seek direction and they work within their own limits. Thus, control is observed by policies also.

7. Control by exception: Under this method, the controller or manager concentrates only on the exceptional circumstances and tries to remove them. Exceptions are activities which are not supposed to be done i.e., the activities should not be out of the area of activity of the employee. In management, control by exception has been imparted universal acceptance.

8. Control by example : This is specific example of control. The manager, in his leadership role, himself becomes a model example of the employees’ work and behaviour. The ideal behaviour of the manager becomes a ‘norm’ for the employees to follow, which in other words, means that the employees will behave in accordance with the example set by the manager. This method is called control by example.

9. Control by records and reports : The management scrutinizes the records and reports called from various branches from time to time. After scrutiny, the concerned branch or branches are issued necessary instructions or directions. Thus control is observed by scrutinizing the records and report of the concerned branches or offices.

10. Control by fixing of limitation: In an organization, area of activity or operation of an employee is fixed. It is necessary to obtain prior permission of the higher officials to work beyond the area of operation. This permission is granted in the interest of the organization only when it is found necessary. In this way, control is observed over the subordinates.

11. Control by disciplinary action : Disciplinary action along with criticism of an employee is a negative aspect of control. This has an adverse effect on the moral of the employee, reduces his efficiency and initiative. Even so. this method, at times, becomes necessary as a weapon of the last resort. This method is applied to those employees who do not improve in their efficiency in spite of use of all positive methods. This method should, however, be adopted only in instances of serious lapses or shortcomings.

12. Control by written order : Under this method the employees are served with written notice or memorandum. Sometimes, demi-official (D.O.) letters are also issued with instructions to bring improvement in their working using simple and clear language.

13. Control by other methods : In addition to above methods, control is adopted by additional budget, break-even analysis, ratio analysis, self-control, charts and tables, indices etc.

(B) Specific methods:

1. Budgetary control: It is a traditional form of control and it is a widely used device in management. Budgets are used to control the day today operations of an enterprise.

2. Cost control : By exercising cost control the per unit production cost can be ascertained and can find out the method of minimizing the cost in future.

3. Break even analysis: The relationship of sales and expenses is depicted by a break even point chart. This chart shows the volume at which revenues exactly covers expenses.

4. Quality control: The best quality product of same grade and size can be produced at a cheaper rate. Such attractive goods will capture the market.

5. Production control : Under production control, all the activities involved in production are controlled in such a manner that the work of production is accomplished within the fixed time. In production control, control measures like the quality of goods, quantity, cost etc. are also adopted. In production control, the following two factors are kept in mind :

(a) When, how much and by which methods goods are to be produced
(b) Whether production is being accomplished as per per-determined plans or not ?

6. Material control: In cost of production, materials form a major portion. Therefore, the availability of the best material and minimum cost is very essential. Less than required quantity or more than required quantity of material are both considered unsuitable. Whereas production will be affected in the absence of required quantity of material, in case of excess of material, a part of capital! will remain idle. “Therefore, observing required control over all activities of material management is material control.

Question 9.
What is controlling ? Explain its importance.
“Controlling is a continuous activity in an organization.”
Answer:
controlling is a continuous or never-ending process. According to Koontz and O’ Donnell, “Just as the navigator continually takes a planned action, so should the business manager continually take to reading to assure himself that his enterprise or department is on course. ” Controlling never stops. Planning and controlling are two interrelated functions are reinforce each other. Control follows a definite pattern and time-table, month after month and year after year on a continuous basis.
The following are the points due to which control has a great importance :

1. Increasing size of business: At present the size of business is increasing day by day, from sole trader to partnership, from partnership to company. One man cannot control such big organization. So it is necessary to take help from others, therefore, control is necessary to see that no type of irregularity creeps into the organization.

2. Motivation for efficient employee : Efficient employee always welcomes control system because he gets a good opportunity for good work and finds his way to progress. He may be appreciated by managers for good work and so an employee is motivated towards work.’ ‘

3. For complete discipline : Discipline is necessary for any enterprise. To maintain discipline, control is very necessary. So, it can be said where there is control, discipline will come automatically. In the absence of control, indiscipline arises and hence morale of good employees hampers.

4. Helpful in future planning : Through controlling process, managers get full knowledge about the limitations of their objects and their efficiency. On the basis of this knowledge, it becomes easier for managers to prepare future planning. Through the process of controlling, managers get very important information about targets which may be useful in preparing future planning. .

5. Aids efficiency : Basically, control is concerned with ensuring that all activities proceed as per plans. Hence, it brings about efficiency in the organization.

6. Decrease in risk : Generally business and risk cannot be segregated but limitation and obstacles of business can be fully controlled. If it is done, then risk of business may be minimized to a great extent.

7. Helpful in coordination : Coordination has an important place in management, where control is best, the discipline will be best and in the presence of discipline, coordination becomes easier.

8. Helpful in decentralization : Decentralization (Dispersion) of authority is essential in big enterprises. Management cannot delegate authority without ensuring controls management must retain control in its hands to make sure whether authority is being used properly.

9. Helps in further planning : Planning and control are closely related. While planning is forward-looking, control is backward looking. Good control enables to analyse causes for deviations, and if required alter the plans according to circumstances. Thus, control is essentially a review of work done, whereas planning drafts the course of future action. Thus, control helps in further planning.

10. Highlights deviations : Since control is basically a review of past actions, it highlights any deviation while implementing work. This is primarily done by comparing with the standards set. Constant review of actions definitely proves beneficial for the organization.

MP Board Class 12 Business Studies Important Questions